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Detecting Hornbeam Trees Phenological Characteristics of Mountain Forest

Problem statement: Phenology is the study of the seasonal occurrence of developmental or life cycle events, such as bud break, flowering, or autumn leaf drop. The proposed study attempted to quantify changes in Carpinus betulus L. phenology of deciduous broad leaf forest between the years 2003-2006. Approach: Phenological studies were fulfilled during four years as from January 2003-December 2006 by using ground observations and IRS1C/1D -LISS-IIΙ data. This study was performed on different altitudes and different aspects. The six sample plots were selected in study area. The statistical analysis showed that there were significant differences between the phonological characteristics in respect to the different site physiographical characteristics. Results: Leaf appearance at this type begins at the first of the third week of April Mostly and continues up to the first week of May. Leaves in this species begin to fall as from the beginning of the fourth week of November and will continue up to the end of first week of December. Furthermore there were significant negative correlation between average precipitation and average air temperature and there of the phonological characteristics. The correlation between average air temperature and leaf mature and fall date was significantly negative. The present study was specified that among the factors of study case, altitude from sea level had in priority and delay of appearance of phenological event has more obvious role out of the other factors. And also, the results show that over the study period, the growing season duration has lengthened by 1.8 days year^-1 in study region. The green-up of vegetation has advanced in the spring by 1.2 days year^-1 and the dormancy delayed in autumn by 0.6 days year^-1. The altitude from sea level had in priority and delay of appearance of phenological event has more obvious role out of the other factors. Conclusion: The growing season duration of Iran�s deciduous broad leaf forest was significantly lengthened, primarily through an earlier green-up and a later dormancy during the period of 2003-2006.

Production of Potassium and Calcium Hydroxide, Compost and Humic Acid from Sago (Metroxylon sagu) Waste

Problem statement: Agriculture waste such as Sago Waste (SW) has a potential to cause pollution when the waste is discarded into rivers. In order to add value to SW, a study was conducted to produce potassium and calcium hydroxide, compost and Humic Acid (HA) from SW. Approach: The SW was air-dried and some grinded. The grinded SW was incinerated at 600�C. Potassium and calcium hydroxide was extracted by dissolving the ash in distilled water at a ratio of 1:500 (ash: water), equilibrated for 24 h at 150 rpm using a mechanical shaker and filtered. The ungrinded SW was used for compost production. The compost was produced by mixing SW (80%) + chicken feed (10%) + chicken dung slurry (5%) + molasses (5%). Results: The hydroxide extracted from ash of SW was used to isolate HA of composted SW. The molarity and pH of the hydroxide were 0.002M and 10 respectively. Calcium (42.88 mg kg^-1) and potassium (29.51 mg kg^-1) content were high in the hydroxide compared with other elements. The compost took about 60 days to mature. There was an increased in pH, ash, Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and HA and a decreased in temperature, C/N ratio, C/P ratio and organic matter. The hydroxide was able to extract 1% of HA from the composted SW. A comparison between the yields of HA extracted from the composted SW using the hydroxide of the SW and that of the analytical grade showed no statistically difference. The chemical characteristics of HA from the composted SW were in standard range. Conclusion: Potassium and calcium hydroxide, compost and HA can be produced from sago waste. Low morality of the hydroxide is able to produce good quality of HA from composted sago waste. The HA can be reconstituted with K and Ca from potassium and calcium hydroxide to produce K-Ca-humate and this needs to be investigated as a form of organic based fertilizer.

Temporal Variability on Lowland River Sediment Properties and Yield

Problem statement: A sediment analysis study was conducted at the Chini River on 16 and 31 August 2008. This study was conducted to review the formation of suspended sediment load in the Lake Chini catchment area, which flows into the Pahang River via the Chini River. Approach: Three sampling stations were chosen, the first one at upstream Chini River (S1), mid-stream Chini River (S2) and downstream Chini River (S3). Three parameters were quantified for this study, namely: distribution of sediment grain size (g), concentration of suspended sediment (mg L^-1) and river discharge values (in m³ sec^-1). Results: The findings of the study show that the sizes of sediment fall between phi �-1.00 and phi �-2.00 with very rough particle sizes falling between phi-1.00 and phi 0.00. At the study area, the daily discharge value is estimated at 722, 304, 00 L day^-1. The average suspended sediment concentration recorded for each station shows varying values for both timelines. The values were 27.33 mg L^-1 on 16/08/08 and 2.233 mg L^-1 on 31/08/08. Conclusion: The average value for all stations calculated based on the formation of suspended sediment load per day falls between 16,480.4627 kg day^-1 on 16/08/08 and 1,540.43 kg day^-1 on 31/08/08. Overall, when this number was extrapolated to every square kilometre, the result showed that the estimated average sediment that flows out of Lake Chini is 73.22 tonnes km^-2 year^-1.

Biodegradation and Recycling of Urban Solid Waste

Problem statement: Rapid urbanization and population growth are largely responsible for very high increasing rate of solid waste in the urban areas, its proper management and recycling is major problems of Municipal Corporation. The proposed study attempted to proper management, physicochemical analysis of Urban Solid Waste (USW) and its conversion to enriched compost by ecofriendly process. Approach: For this study, we used turned windrows method for composting of USW, microbial inoculums added uniformly and temperature, pH, moisture maintained throughout the composting process. The chemical composition of compost obtained at the end of the composting process compare to the United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) standards. Results: A study in Jabalpur had shown the 47% of Urban Solid Waste (USW) were degradable and 53% non-degradable. The initial compositions of urban waste were indicates an organic carbon status of 38% with the C: N ratio of 950. The additives used in solid urban waste composting such as cow dung and green manure recorded organic carbon content of 25.60 and 34.60 and C:N ratio of 30.11 and 11.23. Conclusion: The results of the study clearly indicate that the recycling of solid urban waste can transform garbage or municipal solid waste to enriched composts. This is practical significance if adopted by urban farmers as a result of soil health and in turn the productivity of soil can be maintained for further agriculture.

Monitoring Growing Season Length of Deciduous Broad Leaf Forest Derived From Satellite Data in Iran

Problem statement: Leaf phenology describes the seasonal cycle of leaf functioning and is essential for understanding the interactions between the biosphere, the climate and biogeochemical cycles. This study aimed to quantify changes in plant phenology of deciduous broadleaf forests between the years 1982-1999 and investigate the relationships between the onset dates of phenology and climatic factors. Approach: We studied the climate changes effected on the growing season duration in vegetation of Iran, using the AVHRR/NDVI biweekly time-series data collected from 1982-1999 and concurrent mean temperature and precipitation data. The first estimated fastest changes of NDVI corresponded to the vegetation green-up and dormancy from the seasonal cycle of NDVI during 1982-1999. The onset dates of vegetation green-up and dormancy were determined based on the estimated rates and the NDVI seasonal cycles. Results: The results showed that over the study period, the growing season duration has lengthened by 0.94 days year^-1 in study region. The green-up of vegetation has advanced in the spring by 0.63 days year^-1 and the dormancy delayed in autumn by 0.32 days year^-1. The onset date of green-up for all vegetation types negatively correlated with mean preseason temperature for almost all the preseason periods significant, suggesting that the warmer winters probably benefit an earlier green-up the following spring. Conclusion: Based on NOAA/AVHRR NDVI biweekly time-series data and concurrent climate information, it was estimated that the growing season duration of Iran�s vegetation was significantly lengthened, primarily through an earlier green-up and a later dormancy during the period of 1982-1999.

Co-Digestion of Palm Oil Mill Effluent and Refined Glycerin Wash for Chemical Oxygen Demand Removal and Methane Production

Problem statement: Refined Glycerin Wash Water (RGWW) from the oleochemical industry contains high Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and requires proper treatment before disposal. Unfortunately the wash water also contains high concentration of sodium chloride (NaCl) that could cause inhibition to the normal biological treatment process. However, there is feasibility of co-digesting the RGWW and Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) for its treatment and methane recovery. Approach: A large 500 m³ semi-commercial closed digester tank was used to study the effect of co-digesting POME and RGWW under mesophilic condition at different RGWW percentage. The digester performance in terms of COD removal efficiency and methane production rate and stability based on total Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) accumulation, Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solid (MLVSS) and pH were evaluated. Results: At 1.0% of RGWW co-digested, both COD removal efficiency and methane production rate showed satisfactory results with higher than 90% and 505 m³ day^-1, respectively. However, once the percentage was increased to a maximum of 5.25%, COD removal efficiency remains high but the methane production rate reduced significantly down to 307 m³ day^-1. At this stage, the digester was already unstable with high total VFA recorded of 913 mg L^-1 and low cells concentration of 8.58 g L^-1. This was probably due to the effect of plasmolysis on the methanogens at high concentration of NaCl in the digester of nearly 4000 mg L^-1. Conclusion: Co-digesting of RGWW with high NaCl content and POME is satisfactory for COD removal but not for increasing the methane production.

Landscape Change and Sandy Desertification Monitoring and Assessment

Problem statement: The objective of this study is to develop techniques for assessing and analyzing sand desertification in the northern part of Shaanxi Province, China. Approach: In order to reveal the process of land degradation, especially the latest situation of sandy desertification, a method integrating remote sensing, Geographic Information System (GIS) and field survey was employed to build a sandy desertification dataset for analysis. Remote Sensing images included the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images in 1987 and Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) images in 1999). Eight land-cover classes, including active sand dunes, fixed sand dunes, semi-fixed sand dunes, grass land, farm land, wet land, built up area and unused land and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), were identified. Results: The results showed that the active sand dunes and semi-fixed sand dunes have increased with a change rate of 128.70 and 55.65 km² year^-1, respectively, in the meantime the fixed sand dunes has decreased with a decreasing rate of 182.14 km² year^-1. During the 1987s, the area of sandy desertiﬁed land reached 12,006.11 km² (57.17% of the total sandy area), of which severely desertiﬁed, medium desertiﬁed and slightly desertiﬁed land areas were 4,442.23, 4,253.45 and 3,310.43 km², respectively. By the year 1999, the area of desertiﬁed land was increased to 13,782.30 km² (65.63% of the total sandy area), of which severely desertiﬁed, medium desertiﬁed and slightly desertiﬁed land areas were 5,169.89, 4,918.15 and 3,694.26 km², respectively increasing by 1,776.19 km². Conclusion: Spatial change detection based on active sand dunes showed that the expansion area was much larger than the reversion in the past two decades and that several active sand belts has been formed, suggesting that sandy desertification of northern part of Shaanxi Province, China, will be a long-term task.

Forecasting and Time Series Analysis of Air Pollutants in Several Area of Malaysia

Problem statement: In keeping abreast with Malaysia�s rapid economic development and to meet the nation's aspiration for an improved quality of life, clean-air legislation limiting industrial and automobile emissions was adopted in 1978. Approach: Yet, to this day, air pollution from both sources still poses a problem for the nation. In order to predict the status of future air quality in Malaysia, a Box-Jenkins ARIMA approach was applied to modeling the time series of monthly maximum 1 h carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia, i.e., Terengganu, Pahang and Kelantan, respectively, as well as to a comparison with the representative west coast state represent of Hulu Kelang. Results: In all the states, both carbon monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) concentrations have shown a fairly consistent upward trend since 1996. Nevertheless, the values forecast to 2016 for all states excluding NOx for Hulu Kelang did not exceed the permissible values given by either NAAQS or DOE Malaysia which are 35 and 30 ppm, respectively, at a 1 h average for CO and 0.053 and 0.17 ppm, respectively, for NOx. Conclusion/Recommendations: The forecasting values of each of the concentration parameters are still within a well-conserved condition as they do not exceed the limits of either NAAQS or DOE Malaysia excluding the values for nitrogen dioxide for Hulu Kelang.

The Groundwater Resources of the Morainic Amphitheatre: A Case Study in Piedmont

Problem statement: The risk of groundwater pollution and preservation of groundwater quality of these resources are extremely important topics, particularly at the present time in which water is becoming a limitative factor for land development. In this context the main objective of this study was the evaluation of the pollution vulnerability of groundwater in the Ivrea Morainic Amphitheatre (IMA), situated in the North-West of Piemonte. Approach: The case study required the application of the combined approach SINTACS and GNDCI-CNR Basic Method. SINTACS, used only for the evaluation of vulnerability in the plain covered by alluvial materials, was not considered for the hilly area due to lack of sufficient data, necessary to assign values to the seven required SINTACS parameters. Instead the GNDCI-CNR Basic Method was used, based on a survey of hydrogeologic complexes. The hydrogeologic study had identified an unconfined aquifer in the plain area, situated in the fluvial permeable sediments. Moreover the study had identified a confining bed which separates the aquifer from a deep confined aquifer. Analysis of water table aquifer flow patterns and groundwater quality had led to the characterization of some relationships between different aquifers. Results: Vulnerability map showed an important difference between the water table aquifer and the glacial tills aquifers. The first one had a very high vulnerability, due especially to the small depth of middle-high permeable sediments in the water table. The second one, on the contrary, had a low degree of vulnerability. Conclusion: The vulnerability map must be a fundamental component of an overall groundwater protection scheme: Springs in moraines and the confined aquifer in the plain, which was not affected by groundwater contamination, had better characteristics for drinking water designations.

Hybrid Photovoltaic Thermal (PV/T) Air and Water Based Solar Collectors Suitable for Building Integrated Applications

Problem statement: Experiments have been conducted to investigate the effect of mass flow rates on the electrical, thermal and combined of photovoltaic thermal efficiencies of the hybrid collectors. Approach: Two photovoltaic thermal solar collectors were designed and fabricated. The first collector, known as spiral flow absorber collector, designed to generate hot water and electricity. The second collector, known as single pass rectangular tunnel absorber collector designed to generate hot air and electricity. Both absorber collectors were fixed underneath the flat plate single glazing sheet of polycrystalline silicon PV module. Water was used as a heat transfer medium in spiral flow absorber collector and air for the Single pass rectangular tunnel absorber collector respectively. Results: The experiment results showed that the single flow absorber collector generates combined PV/T efficiency of 64%, electrical efficiency of 11% and power maximum achieved at 25.35 W. Moreover, Single pass rectangular tunnel absorber collector generated combined PV/T efficiency of 55%, electrical efficiency of 10% and maximum power of 22.45 W. Conclusion/Recommendations: The best mass flow rate achieved for spiral flow absorber collector is 0.011 kg sec^-1 at surface temperature of 55% and 0.0754 kg sec^-1 at surface temperature of 39�C for single pass rectangular collector absorber. It was recommended for PV/T system to further improve its efficiency by optimizing the contact surfaces between the solar panel (photovoltaic module) and the tubes underneath and also recommended to use other type of photovoltaic cell such as amorphous silicon cell that posses the black mat surfaces property that will improve it thermal absorption.

Measurements and Model Calibration of Urban Traffic Noise Pollution

Problem statement: The problem of urban traffic noise pollution is universal and in the past few decades it has grown to the point that it has become a major concern for both the public and the policy-makers. Approach: In a comprehensive 18 month research project, traffic-generated noise was monitored at 47 roadway locations in fourteen districts in metropolitan Kuwait in 2004-2005. Simultaneously with noise, traffic flow variables of volume-by mix and traffic speed were also measured. Measurements of noise and traffic flow variables were performed for a period of 20 min at each location, repeated 3-5 times, during peak and off-peak hours to account for time-fluctuation of these variables. At each district, a sample of freeway, arterial, collector and local residential streets were included in the noise and traffic flow monitoring plan. In addition to the analysis of noise, flow and their interrelationships, two models-regressions and the FHWA�s traffic noise model, were employed to predict noise pollutions from traffic. Results: Findings indicated that traffic noise is at or above, the standard outdoor limits in most locations and especially at arterial roadways and freeways. Recommendations concerning measured to improve the problem of urban traffic noise pollution in Kuwait are also made. Conclusion: Findings of this research project had shown that level of traffic-generated noise pollution in Kuwait urban area is high enough to adversely affect the welfare activities and productivities of its residents. With the rapidly growing rate of infrastructural development and unplanned urban land-use change, it is almost certain, that problem of urban traffic noise pollution will soon assume a critical dimension and will be a cause of increasing concern for both public and responsible policy-makers. The quality of urban life will undoubtedly be adversely affected.

Effect of Grain Size on Selected Physico-Chemical Properties of Clay

Problem statement: Mixture of the right proportion of expanding and non-expanding clays to improve plasticity (moldability) of clays used in the pot industry of Malaysia is yet to be well investigated. In addition, little is known about the choice of the right clay size to eliminate or reduce the content of undesirable compounds such as Fe₂O₃, Al₂O₃ to improve the strength of pots and roofing tiles in the country. The objective of this study was to investigate how selected physico-chemical properties of pottery clay relate to grain size of Nyalau series ((Typic Paleudults). Approach: Soil samples were refined into 25, 20 and 63 �m using size grading method. The mineralogical composition of the samples was determined using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD). The chemical composition of the samples was also determined using standard procedures. Firing was done at 800�C) in a muffle furnace and the cracks of the samples recorded. Results: The clay particles with sizes 20 and 25 �m were higher in LOI and total C than that those of 63 �m regardless of grain size, the clay investigated had quartz (SiO₂), illite-montmorillonite, Anatase ((TiO₂) and kaolinite. Grading affected the concentrations of Fe, Al and Si as clays with particle sizes 20 and 25 �m had higher contents of the aforementioned elements compared with those of 63 �m. The clay with particles 63 �m had the best strength and this was so because the clay particles had the lowest amount of Fe, Al and Si. Conclusion: The strength of Malaysian pots could be improved upon proper grading of the clay particles.

Controlling Ammonia Volatilization by Mixing Urea with Humic Acid, Fulvic Acid, Triple Superphosphate and Muriate of Potash

Problem statement: Inefficient use of inorganic fertilizer such as urea is caused by substantial losses of ammonia when urea is surface-applied. Ammonia losses can be controlled by adding acidic material such as TSP, HA or FA. In order to reduce ammonia loss and retain soil exchangeable ammonium and available nitrate as well as producing complete organic based fertilizer, this study was conducted to compare the effects of urea-TSP-MOP, urea-TSP-MOP-HA, urea-TSP-MOP-FA, urea-TSP-MOP-acidified (HA + FA) mixtures on ammonia loss, soil pH, soil exchangeable ammonium and available nitrate accumulation compared to urea alone. Approach: The effects of urea amended with or without TSP, MOP, HA and FA were evaluated in a laboratory condition using a closed-dynamic air flow system. Ammonia loss, soil pH, soil exchangeable ammonium and available nitrate were determined using standard procedures. Results: Urea-TSP-MOP-HA, Urea-TSP-MOP, Urea-TSP-MOP-FA and Urea-TSP-MOP-Acidified (HA + FA) mixtures significantly reduces ammonia loss by 12.92, 20.12, 29.54 up to 100 % compared to urea alone. The same observation was made for soil exchangeable ammonium. From all the treatments, only Urea-TSP-MOP-FA and Urea-TSP-MOP-Acidified (HA + FA) significantly retained soil available nitrate accumulation and the findings were consistent with pH found in the study. It must be stressed that results obtained in the incubation experiment using an acidic (pH_water 6.32) soil of Typic Paleudults (Bekenu series) might only be applicable to similar acid soils. Conclusion: Urea, TSP and MOP amended with HA or HA and FA significantly reduced ammonia loss. The outcome of this study may contribute to the improvement of urea N, P and K use efficiency as well as reducing environmental pollution.

Time Series Analysis Model for Rainfall Data in Jordan: Case Study for Using Time Series Analysis

Problem statement: Time series analysis and forecasting has become a major tool in different applications in hydrology and environmental management fields. Among the most effective approaches for analyzing time series data is the model introduced by Box and Jenkins, ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average). Approach: In this study we used Box-Jenkins methodology to build ARIMA model for monthly rainfall data taken for Amman airport station for the period from 1922-1999 with a total of 936 readings. Results: In this research, ARIMA (1, 0, 0) (0, 1, 1)¹² model was developed. This model is used to forecasting the monthly rainfall for the upcoming 10 years to help decision makers establish priorities in terms of water demand management. Conclusion/Recommendations: An intervention time series analysis could be used to forecast the peak values of rainfall data.

Mathematical Model of Double Pass Photovoltaic Thermal Air Collector with Fins

Problem statement: The efficiency of photovoltaic cells is generally temperature dependent (efficiency decrease when the temperature of the photovoltaic cells increase). This problem can be solved by cooling the solar cells during operation and operated at low temperature. Approach: This study presented a numerical model of double pass Photovoltaic Thermal (PV/T) solar air collector with fins attached to the back side of the absorber plate to improve heat transfer to the flowing air for predicting the performance of the system. Results: Five coupled of unsteady nonlinear partial differential equations were formulated by using first order forward scheme in time and second order central difference scheme in space to predict the performance of PV/T solar air heater at different parameters and conditions. The temperatures of the solar cells, outlet fluid temperature and the temperature distribution of every static element in both models were predicted. The performance of the collector including photovoltaic, thermal and combined PV/T collector over range of operating conditions are discussed. Conclusion: Experimental and theoretical results were compared and showed that close agreement between these two values were obtained.

Effect of Mixing Urea with Humic Acid and Acid Sulphate Soil on Ammonia Loss, Exchangeable Ammonium and Available Nitrate

Problem statement: Ammonia loss due to rapid hydrolysis of urea in soil following surface application can be substantial. Ammonia loss in agriculture is estimated to be 1 to 60%. This laboratory study compared the effect of three different urea-humic acid-acid sulphate soil mixtures on NH3 loss and soil ammonium and nitrate contents, with loss from surface applied urea without additives (urea alone). Approach: Humic acid, acid sulfate soil and soil use in the incubation study was analyzed for selected soil physical-chemical properties. The fertilizers mixture and ammonia loss was done using standard methods. The treatments were evaluated in Randomized Complete block Design with 3 replications. The data obtained at the end of the study on total ammonia loss, soil pH, exchangeable ammonium and available nitrate were analyzed using analysis of variance and the means were compared using Duncan�s test using Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.2. Results: The soil used to test treatments was a sandy clay loam Typic Paleudults (Nyalau series). The mixture significantly reduced NH₃ loss by between 31.5 and 36.7% compare with urea alone with larger reductions with higher rate of humic acid (0.75 and 1 g Kg^-1 of soil) and acid sulphate soil (0.75 g Kg^-1 of soil). The impact of the treatment also showed significant effect on the soil pH and ammonium content at the end of study. Conclusion: Amending urea with acid sulphate soil and humic acid can reduce ammonia loss in acid soils by improving ammonium retention. This may in effect improve urea-N use efficiency as well as reducing environmental pollution in agriculture.

Full Scale Tests of Short-Term Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Bottom Ash Weathering Before Landfill Disposal

Problem statement: Natural weathering is the most economic method of treatment in order to reduce the release of heavy metals present in the residue. Approach: The aim of the study was to optimize the minimum weathering times that were useful to reduce the lead release to within the Italian limits for landfill disposal. The mechanism of short-term weathering of MSWI bottom ash had been studied and its effect on the leaching of lead had been evaluated. Two bottom ash heaps had been realized for the experimental assessment: In one case an open-air situation was used, in the other, a heap placed under shelter was not exposed to rain. Results: The weathering course was monitored through the results of a leaching test that was carried out at different ageing times (EN 12457-2:2002). The total carbonates were also measured, at the same time, on the fine fraction of the weathered bottom ash (<1 mm). A fast decrease in lead release was observed in the analysis of the leachates and, at the same time, a decrease in pH and calcium concentration. The pH and leachate lead concentration control mechanisms were investigated and individuated. It had been possible to observe that the lead concentration was fundamentally a function of the pH. The Calcite precipitation that occurred from calcium hydroxide carbonation was the main reason for the decrease above all during the first days of the process, when the maximum quantity of CO₂ was fixed by air. The pH value was controlled by Portlandite dissolution only at the beginning, after the pH control seems to be due to aluminum hydroxides. Conclusion: The most significant changes in the bottom ash were found to occur in the first 60 days. It had been possible to verify the limited influence of washing phenomena while it was confirmed that carbonation was the most important process in short-term weathering and that it had an important rule on limiting lead release.

Integration of Electrical and Electromagnetic Investigation for Contaminated Site

Problem statement: The environmental assessment of industrial areas is required to minimize the risk of soil and groundwater contamination. The survey of wide areas (e.g., some hectares) provides a high economical and complex logistical impact when random strategies of soil sampling are adopted. Recently, geophysical methods had been successfully adopted to drive the process of the spatial sampling of the soil. Approach: The main goal was to verify the reliability of the geophysics for the detection of buried wastes in an industrial area previously involved in the vehicle demolition. Two geophysical methods were applied (1) the electromagnetic frequency domain, using a multi-frequency broadband system with a fixed spacing between the transmitter and receiver coils (2 m) to observe the soil electrical conductivity and in-phase response (2) the electrical resistivity and chargeability tomographies, performed along several transects. We applied the Kriging method to map the conductivity and the in-phase response. Standard inversion procedure was adopted to interpret the resistivity and chargeability data. Results: We found a very similar response of the electromagnetic survey in range between 2000 and 40.000 Hz: The investigation depth (3-4 m) was mainly related to the coil spacing. The survey pointed out some anomalies caused by bio-geochemical activity in the active waste deposits. The resistivity and chargeability sections confirmed that the electromagnetic anomalies were related to the waste. The high chargeability values (up to 100 mV/V) were associated to the leakages of metals of the wastes. Conclusion: The electromagnetic survey, even if sensitive to the presence of cultural noise (fence, metallic object on the ground), permitted to detect the industrial waste; the electrical resistivity and chargeability data pointed out the main contaminated zones with good accuracy. The further development may focus on the relationship between the nature of waste and the geophysical response.

Preliminary Tests Concerning Zero-Valent Iron Efficiency in Inorganic Pollutants Remediation

Problem statement: This study was aimed to a preliminary evaluation of the applicability of granular Zero-Valent Iron (ZVI) to the on site remediation of groundwater polluted by inorganic contaminants by means of a Permeable Reactive Barrier (PRB). A particular interest was devoted to groundwater impacted by Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) that was caused by the oxidation of metal sulphide minerals contained in mine wastes, especially iron disulphide pyrite. Although AMD consequences were particularly evident in surface waters, the percolation through mine wastes may heavily alter the groundwater quality, therefore is particularly important the development of a restrained cost remediation technique for groundwater polluted by AMDs. Approach: In this study the degradation efficiency of Brown size 8/50 ZVI (Peerless Powders and Abrasive Inc., Detroit, US) was evaluated performing a leaching column test and analyzing the Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP), metals, nitrates, chlorides and sulphates profiles along the column. Results: This test allowed simulating the solid-liquid contact characteristic of a real PRB behavior that proved to be a possible solution for the remediation of inorganic pollutants in groundwater. Conclusion: The considered material showed efficiency above 99% in metals removal, although further tests, involving biotic processes and more reducing conditions, are necessary to improve the degradation of sulphates and nitrates.

Sorption of Phenols: Influence of Groundwater pH and of Soil Organic Carbon Content

Problem statement: Physical and chemical properties of soil, groundwater and pollutants deeply influenced the type and the strength of sorption phenomena involving hydrophobic organic contaminants: Soil fraction of organic carbon (foc) and cation exchange capacity, groundwater pH and pollutants hydrophobicity were with undoubtedly the predominant issues. Approach: In this study an experimental study of the sorption of phenol and 2-nitrophenol on three soils was performed considering three initial pH values, with the aim to evaluate the soil/pollutant interactions as a function of the relative abundance of the neutral contaminants and phenolate species and of the solid phase properties. Results: The considered soil samples (a silty clay, a silt and a sand coming from northern Italy) underwent to a physical and chemical characterization: Particle-size, mineralogical and chemical analyses were performed. The experimental data coming from some batch tests, carried employing aqueous phases containing different concentrations of phenol and 2-nitrophenol at initial pH values equal to 4, 7 and 10, were fitted by means of several isotherm models. Three Dual Mode Models (DMM), employing different isotherm models to represent the sorption of the neutral and the anionic species of the pollutants, were evaluated by the researchers to simulate the sorption of phenol and 2-nitrophenol in the examined conditions. Conclusion: The soil/contaminant interaction mechanisms determining the isotherm shapes were discussed: foc appeared to be the main issue, although the nitro-group was able to promote sorption. In all considered soil samples and at all initial pH values, the highest foc (found in the silty soil) and the presence of the nitro-group determined the highest amounts of pollutant transferred on the solid phase. The two DMMs proposed by the researchers, implying nonlinearity, showed a higher reliability in simulating experimental data compared to a DMM based on linear sorption isotherms. Main sorption mechanisms were controlled by the partitioning of neutral pollutants in soil organic matter, but also the interactions between the pollutants, both in phenolate and in neutral forms and the soil mineral surface played a primary role.

The Influence of Soil Characteristics in Low Flows Regionalization

Problem statement: For the purpose of low flows regionalization, relevant issue for water resources management like environmental flows requirements definition, this study focused on the controls on the seasonal and spatial variability of q₉₅ (i.e., the specific discharge that was exceeded on 95% of all the time) with particular reference to the role of soil characteristics, that, like soil infiltration rate, aquifers recharge, evapotranspiration and topography, usually play a relevant role in low flows seasonality and occurrence within a river. Approach: Piemonte and Valle d�Aosta Regions (North-Western Italy) were the investigated study area (30,027 km²) where 41 catchments were analyzed with the aim of robust regression models enabling the transfer of hydrological information from gauged to un-gauged sites. Results: The regionalization method consisted of multiple regression models between low flows and catchment characteristics. Twenty-five catchment descriptors were used, checking their relative influence with the multi-regressive procedure and a special attention was devoted to the selection of significant soil characteristics in the regionalization process. Seasonality indices were used to classify catchments into two sub-regions and separate multiple regressions was performed by checking the prediction performance with cross-validation. Also a global regression was fitted out but it yielded a lower performance. In the study domain land use, topography and Thornthwaite moisture index demonstrated to be the most significant variables in order to represent relationships between catchment soil characteristics and low flows regime. Conclusion/Recommendations: Results obtained in this study were comparable with other regionalization studies carried out in Austria and Switzerland. The interpretation of the identified regression models provided, at local scale, new tools for water management and environmental flows requirements and, from a wider point of view, useful insights into the general comprehension of low flows processes.

Implementation of Environmental Management Systems in the Extraction of Construction Aggregates from Gravel Pit Lakes

Problem statement: Mining operations are strategic and essential industrial activities which rely on the use of non renewable natural resources, causing several relevant interactions with the environment. Approach: The need to perform in compliance with even more stringent environmental legislation and to satisfy different stakeholders demands and pressures, is progressively leading the mining sector towards the implementation of Environmental Management Systems (EMS). However scientific literature outlined a relevant research gap in the absence of specific technical guidelines to facilitate such voluntary environmentally responsible approach in the different sectors of mining. Results: Therefore the present study was focused on the extraction of construction aggregates from gravel pit lakes, sector characterized by peculiar operations and related environmental problems. Through the analysis of representative sites (located in Piedmont Region-NW Italy), where the environmental components of the interested territories, the equipments used and operations carried out, the main legal requirements, the environmental problems and monitoring systems were examined, the research identified environmental problems and practices which could be considered common to this sector and be taken into account during the EMS implementation. In particular the study, with reference to the ISO 14001 requirements, focused on the analysis and monitoring of the environmental aspects and to the identification of specific operational and monitoring procedures which should be defined by the organization within the EMS. Conclusion: Therefore the main results of the research presented in this study supplied specific technical elements to be used by the companies operating gravel pit lakes for a correct and exhaustive EMS implementation and represented a new contribution for a more widespread adoption of ISO 14001 in the mining sector.

MNM1D: A Numerical Code for Colloid Transport in Porous Media: Implementation and Validation

Problem statement: Understanding the mechanisms that control the transport and fate of colloidal particles in subsurface environments is a crucial issue faced by several researchers in the last years. In many cases, natural colloids have been shown to play a major role in the spreading of strongly sorbing contaminants, while manufactured micro-and nanoparticles, which are nowadays widely spread in the subsurface, can be toxic themselves. On the other hand, in recent years studies have been addressed to the use of highly reactive micro-and nanoparticle suspensions for the remediation of contaminated aquifers. Provide the set of partial-differential model equations and its numerical solution for the colloid transport under transient hydrochemical conditions, that have been previously shown to be extremely important in micro-and nanoparticle transport in porous media. Approach: This study presented a novel colloid transport model, called MNM1D (Micro-and Nanoparticle transport Model in porous media in 1D geometry), able to simulate the colloid behavior in porous media in the presence of both constant and transient hydrochemical parameters (namely ionic strength). The model accounts for attachment and detachment phenomena, that can be modeled with one or two linear and/or langmuirian interaction sites. The governing equations were solved using a finite-differences approach, herein presented and discussed in details. Results: Both qualitative and quantitative comparisons with results of well-established colloid transport models, based both on analytical and numerical solutions of the colloid transport equation, were performed. The MNM1D results were found to be in good agreement with these solutions. Conclusion: The shown good agreement between MNM1D and the other models indicated that this code can represent in the future a useful tool for the simulation of colloidal transport in groundwater under transient hydrochemical conditions.

Adsorption Study of Several Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants on an Aquifer Material

Problem statement: Aim of the present research was to determine coefficient of partition K_D between soil and groundwater for five hydrophobic organic pollutants (benzene, chlorobenzene, trichloroethylene-TCE, perchloroethylene-PCE and toluene) in an Italian aquifer material characterized by a low organic carbon content (f_OC = 0.00262) by means of laboratory batch tests. Initial aqueous concentrations (quite different among the five compounds) were representative of the pollution level of considered site. Approach: Adsorption data for five afore mentioned compounds were obtained by means of laboratory tests: Multi-contaminant adsorption tests were performed putting in contact 50 g of dried soil together with 200 mL of a contaminant solution for 72 h in order to achieve the equilibrium. After 72 h, supernatant was then analyzed by means of headspace gaschromatography providing the equilibrium concentration of the contaminants of interest in liquid phase. The concentration of contaminants of interest in solid phase (adsorbent) was determined taking advantage of a mass balance performed on each contaminant. Results: Results showed that both linear isotherm (in form of Henry isotherm) and Freundlich isotherm were able to fit experimental points for benzene, chlorobenzene, TCE and PCE in a satisfactory way; as for these four contaminants, PCE is more strongly adsorbed than TCE and TCE, in its turn, is more strongly adsorbed than benzene and chlorobenzene. On the other hand, Langmuir model appeared to be the most suitable in fitting toluene experimental points. The comparison between real distribution coefficient K_D obtained fitting experimental points with an Henry-type isotherm and K_D obtained on grounds of a theoretical model, like Linear Free Energy Relationships (LFER-based model), showed that LFER model uniformly underestimate the sorption process over whole concentration range, with the only exception of toluene. In case of toluene, LFER-based model fitted the sorption data very well; besides, Henry-type K_D is very close to that calculated from LFER correlation over the tested concentration range: Difference between two KD values is the smallest among five considered contaminants (K_D toluene theoretical LFER = 0.520 L kg_{-1_{; K_D toluene experimental = 0.465 L kg_-1). Conclusion: The important practical implication of results came from batch tests was that the calculation of K_D based on theoretical models, like LFER, may give a wrong sorption estimation in some aquifers with a relatively low f_OC content.}}

Rocks with Asbestos: Risk Evaluation by Means of an Abrasion Test

Naturally occurring asbestos and asbestiform minerals can be found in metamorphic rocks and in the soil of the alluvial plains. Problem statement: The definition of the �free-asbestos rock� and the limit to consider a rock or a soil safe is still a controversial issue. American and European laws did not present any method to define the hazard of the green stones, instead Italian law, in Ministerial Decree1996, established a limit value obtaoined by the determination of the Release Index. In order to detect an asbestos concentration in the rocks, a reliable analytic methodology has been necessary. Approach: An abrasion trial, using the mechanism action of a rotary cylinder, and a Phase Contrast Optical Microscopy (PCOM) method to analyze the powder obtained from the mill, had been used. To simplify PCOM analysis, the sample, recovered from the mill, was selected in particle size classes: large, medium and small. Each class was separated by means of sedimentation in fibrous and granular fractions. Results: The separation of asbestos in large and medium classes was quite good and the fibers had been weighed. For the small class the transformation of visible data into numerical data was complex, but the results had been reliable. Conclusion/Recommendations: The suggested method, although semi-quantitative, could be useful to solve the difficult problem of the analysis of the asbestos content in the rocks or soils. The division into granular classes allowed a more representative sample to be analyzed and better quality slides to be prepared. From the results obtained, the analysis of the small classes by means of PCOM was a critical point: The use of the SEM method can improve it.

Groundwater in the Urban Environment: Management Needs and Planning Strategies

Problem statement: Over the past thirty years urban transformations, such as urbanization, asuburbanization, dis-urbanization and re-urbanization processes, have modified the subsurface conditions of Torino (NW Italy). In order to contribute to the solution of the problems concerning groundwater the conceptual model for the groundwater flow system, the schematization of the aquifers boundaries and the estimation of basic hydrogeological parameters are among the main issues which should be investigated. This study was mainly aimed at illustrating (i) a new interpretation for the Torino urban area hydrogeological setting (ii) highlighting the current groundwater criticisms and (iii) emphasizing the priority actions to implement a good urban groundwater management system. Approach: Starting from the analysis of the existing subsurface data, a comprehensive description of the general geological setting had been performed, three main (hydro) stratigraphical Units had been described and their reciprocal relationships had been detected. On the basis of the available data, the unconfined groundwater natural seepage had been reconstructed, a hydrogeological map and a cross section illustrating the units characteristics had been produced. Results: The analysis highlighted three main groundwater criticisms: A natural unconfined groundwater level uplifting in the quaternary unit 1, a widespread inorganic pollution under abandoned industrial areas and many interference problems with the groundwater in unit 1 caused by the new transport infrastructures. Another important problem was the scarce geographical density of the existing groundwater monitoring network operating in the urban area. Conclusion: Solutions to specific, local problems can give the opportunity to transform some of the above mentioned problems into useful resources for the territorial development. The expansion of the groundwater observation network clearly appeared to be the main action to be implemented by the public authorities. Other successive actions could be the construction of a multi-purpose interactive real-time mathematical model of groundwater movement in the urban area and the development of improved methods for predicting changes of hydrogeological conditions.

Pore Water Pressure Contribution to Debris Flow Mobility

Problem statement: Debris flows are very to extremely rapid flows of saturated granular soils. Two main types of debris flow are generally recognized: Open slope debris flows and channelized debris flows. The former is the results of some form of slope failures, the latter can develop along preexisting stream courses by the mobilization of previously deposited debris blanket. The problem to be addressed is the influence of the mode of initiation on the subsequent mechanism of propagation. In particular the role of pore water pressure on debris flow mobility in both types was debated. Approach: Laboratory flume experiments were set up in order to analyze the behavior of debris flows generated by model sand slope failures. Failures were induced in sand slopes by raising the water level by seepage from a drain located at the top end of the flume, and by rainfall supplied by a set of pierced plastic pipes placed above the flume. Video recordings of the tests were performed to analyze debris flow characteristics. Results: In all the tests the sand water mixture flows were unsteady and non uniform and sand deposition along the channel bed was a relevant phenomenon. The flows were characterized by a behavioral stratification of the sand water mixture along the flow depth. Back analyzed pore water pressure were just in excess to the hydrostatic condition. The reliability of the experimental results was checked by comparison with other flume experiment data. Conclusion: Debris flow behavior was influenced by the mode of initiation, the inclination of the channel and grain size of the soils. These factors affected the attained velocities and the pore water pressure values. The mobility of debris flows was not always enhanced by high excess pore water pressure values.

In situ Shear Tests of Soil Samples with Grass Roots in Alpine Environment

Problem statement: The presence of vegetation increases the soil burden stability along slopes and reduces soil erosion. Its contribution is due to mechanical (reinforcing soil shear resistance) and hydrologic controls on streambank and superficial landslides. This study presented the results carried out from experimental in situ test focused to study the increased shear resistance of soil blocks due to root-reinforcement. A shear apparatus was set up in order to realize the measure. Approach: In this research the researchers tested the capacity root reinforcement of Festuca pratensis, Lolium perenne and Poa pratensis (Poaceae families), Medicago sativa, Trifolium pratensis and Lotus corniculatus (Fabaceae families) grass species widespread in the Alpine environment. Results: In situ shear tests results revealed that grass roots fail progressively and their tendency were to slip, without failing. Shear-strengths calculated for root-reinforced soil with Fabaceae, yielded values between 19 and 166% higher than directly measured shear-strengths in soil with no roots. The shear displacement had an increase included between 493 and 1.900%. The shear time was always superior. The clod with roots, after the trials, were always packed together. Conclusion: These data were lower than those obtained with Poaceae tests (from 50-318%), but the two grass families were functional for a grass mix useful in technical seeding.

An Assessment of Blasting Vibrations: A Case Study on Quarry Operation

Problem statement: One of the major environmental concerns related to blasting operation in mining and civil engineering projects is ground vibration. Approach: This study presented an assessment of ground vibrations caused by the blasting experiments at a marlstone quarry in northern Italy. The primary goal of this study was to determine the vibration level in order to protect dwelling area adjacent to the quarry. Based on the data obtained from the field, a new equation for the level of ground vibrations was proposed. Results: A comparative analysis between the results obtained by the new equation and common empirical predictors currently used in blasting practice was also carried out. Conclusion: Results indicated that a new equation may be used as a reliable predictor of the vibration level for the studied quarry.

Investigation of Vegetation Dynamics using Long-Term Normalized Difference Vegetation Index Time-Series

Problem statement: The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is the most extensively used satellite-derived index of vegetation health and density. Since climate is one of the most important factors affecting vegetation condition, satellite-derived vegetation indexes have been often used to evaluate climatic and environmental changes at regional and global scale. The proposed study attempted to investigate the temporal vegetation dynamics in the whole Africa using historical NDVI time-series. Approach: For this aim, 15 day maximum value NDVI composites at 8 km spatial resolution produced from the NASA Global Inventory Mapping and Monitoring System (GIMMS) had been used. They were derived from data collected daily by NOAA AVHRR satellites. The AVHRR NDVI GIMMS dataset was freely available and gives global coverage over an extensive time period. First of all, the selected NDVI base data had been geometrically pre-processed and organized into a historical database implemented in order to grant their spatial integration. Starting from this archive, monthly and yearly NDVI historical time-series, extended from 1982-2006, had been then developed and analysed on a pixel basis. Several routines hade been developed in IDL (Interactive Data Language programming tool) with the purpose of applying suitable statistical analysis techniques to the historical information in the database in order to identify the long-term trend components of generated NDVI time-series and extract vegetation dynamics. Specific tests had been then considered in order to define the validity of results. Results: The existence of clear regional trends of NDVI, both decreasing and increasing had been showed, which helped to highlight areas subject, respectively to reduction or increase in vegetation greenness. Conclusion: As the relationship between the NDVI and vegetation productivity was well established, these estimated long-term trend components may be also, with much more caution, related to historical and ongoing land degradation or improvement processes.

Bioaccumulation of Arsenic by Fungi

Heterogeneous Modeling, Identification and Simulation of Activated Sludge Processes

A Study on Potentiality of Carbon Storage and CO2 Uptake in the Biomass and Soil of Coppice Stand

The Effect of Air Entry Values on Hysteresis of Water Retention Curve in Saline Soil

Computable General Equilibrium Techniques for Carbon Tax Modeling

Analysis of Some Pesticide Residues in Cauliflower by High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Effect of Environmental Comfort Factors in Enclosed Transitional Space toward Work Productivity

Electroosmotic Phenomena in Organic Soils

Aerobic Biodegradation of Per-Treated Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether By Ozonation in an Up-Flow-Fixed-Bed Reactor

Mountain Sheep: An Environmental Epidemiological Survey of Variation in Metal Exposure and Physiological Biomarkers Following Mine Development

Adjustment of Peak Streamflows of a Tropical River for Urbanization

The Development of Ni/Dolomite Catalyst in Simultaneous Biomass Gasification and Reforming in Fluidized Bed

A Gate to Gate Assessment of the Environmental Performance of the Production of Crude Palm Kernel Oil Using the Life Cycle Assessment Approach

The Characteristics of Leachate and Groundwater Pollution at Municipal Solid Waste Landfill of Ibb City, Yemen

Effect of the 2004 �Boxing Day� Tsunami on Water Properties and Currents in the Bay of Bengal

Long-term Effect of Conventional and No-Tillage Production Systems on Nitrous Oxide Fluxes from Corn (Zea mays L.) Field in Southwestern Quebec

Phenanthrene Contaminated Soil Biotreatment Using Slurry Phase Bioreactor

Potential Contribution of Traffic to Air Pollution in the State of Kuwait

Toxicity Testing and the Effect of Landfill Leachate in Malaysia on Behavior of Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L., 1758; Pisces, Cyprinidae)

Adsorption of Methylene Blue from Aqueous Solution onto a Low-Cost Natural Jordanian Tripoli

Assessing Community Health Risks: Proactive Vs Reactive Sampling

Problem statement: A considerable number of native birds died in the West Australian coastal town of Esperance and surroundings during late 2006 and early 2007, which raised community concerns about environmental contamination. Forensic investigations of dead birds suggested that lead may have been the causative agent. At the time, lead and nickel, as well as iron ore and other materials, were being exported through the Port of Esperance (port). Government agencies undertook a targeted environmental sampling programme to identify the exposure sources and the extent of contamination. Results of ambient air monitoring, blood lead level investigations and analysis of metals in rainwater tanks suggested widespread contamination of the Esperance town site with lead and nickel. The Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) retained Golder Associates Pty Ltd., (Golder) to undertake a human health and ecological risk assessment (risk assessment) using the information collected through the investigation of lead and nickel contamination in Esperance. The quantity and quality of exposure data are an important contributor to the uncertainty associated with the outcomes of a risk assessment. Conclusion: As the data were collected essentially as part of the emergency response to the events in Esperance, there was some uncertainty about the suitability and completeness of the data for risk assessment. The urgent nature of the emergency response meant that sampling was opportunistic and not necessarily sufficient or suitable for risk assessment from a methodical and scientific perspective. This study demonstrated the need for collecting �meaningful and reliable� data for assessing risks from environmental contamination.

Presence of Arsenic in Commercial Beverages

Problem statement: This study�s goal was to assess the arsenic concentration of various beverages and broths purchased from a local chain supermarket. A source of chronic arsenic exposure occurs via food and beverage consumption. Groundwater levels of total arsenic are regulated (<10 �g L^-1) by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) but few studies have examined arsenic concentrations in common beverages. Approach: In the initial analysis of 19 items, total arsenic concentration was assessed from a variety of fruit juices, sports drinks, sodas and broths. Items found to contain levels of total arsenic ≥5.0 �g L^-1 were further evaluated. Additional analysis included purchasing multiple brands of items ≥5.0 �g L^-1and analyzing them for total arsenic and chemical species of arsenic. Results: Among the beverages in the initial analysis, apple juice (10.79 �g L^-1) and grape juice (49.87 �g L^-1) contained the highest levels of total arsenic. Upon examination of items with As concentrations above 5.0 �g L^-1, varying concentrations of total arsenic were found in apple cider (range: 5.41-15.27 �g L^-1), apple juice (range: 10.67-22.35 �g L^-1), baby fruit juice (range: 13.91-16.51 �g L^-1) and grape juice (range: 17.69-47.59 �g L^-1). Conclusion: Many commercially available juices contained concentrations of arsenic that were higher than the standard for total arsenic allowed in groundwater as set forth by the EPA. The concentration of As in these juices varied between and within brands. In general, those consuming apple and grape juices are the young and elderly and it is these populations that may be more vulnerable to over exposure of heavy metals.

Heavy Metals Analysis and Sediment Quality Values in Urban Lakes

Problem statement: The objective of this research was to evaluate the degree of heavy metal contamination in lakes and the extent to which the sediment quality of the lakes of Bangalore city has deteriorated. Approach: In this study, heavy metals such as Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Mn, Pb, Ni and Zn in lake bed sediments were analyzed using comparative sediment quality guidelines from various derived criteria. The selection of sampling points was based upon inflow and outflow regions of the lakes; geographical proximity of industrial units in relation to their effluent discharges; proximity of residential sites located on the banks of the wetland systems; drainage patterns and accessibility towards the lakes. Digestion and analysis of the samples were done by microwave-assisted digestion and atomic absorption spectrophotometry respectively. Results: The extent of sediment quality deterioration was more pronounced in Cu (203.50 ppm) and Ni (97.64 ppm) followed by Pb (206.0 ppm) and Cd (8.38 ppm). Cr (96.70 ppm) failed a single sediment quality guideline while Zn (220.0 ppm), Mn (176.0 ppm) and Co (47.7 ppm) remained within the safety levels of sediment quality guidelines prescribed for the study. The Sediment Geo-accumulation Index showed that Co, Cu and Pb showed moderate levels of pollution while the Pollution Load Index (PLI) between heavy metals in the lakes produced the following outputs: Ni > Pb > Cd > Cu > Cr > Co > Zn > Mn. Conclusion: This study proves that the level of sustained metal contamination of the fragile urban wetlands has not receded even after the recent urban wetlands rejuvenation works were completed. This prolonged presence in excessive levels of the studied heavy metals in the bed sediments casts doubt on the choice and effectiveness of the any mitigation measures in the long run.

Comparison of Daily and Monthly Results of Three Evapotranspiration Models in Tropical Zone: A Case Study

Problem statement: Evapotranspiration (ET) has crucial role in agricultural activity, water management and hydraulic engineering. Recently many forms of the equation have been applied for estimating daily and monthly evapotranspiration around the world. Approach: In this study, the daily and monthly ET was estimated by Penman, Penman-Monteith (P and M) and Hargreaves equation to evaluate general relationships for estimating monthly and daily values of these 3 methods and also effect of different parameters such as Humidity and wind speed on fluctuation of ET. Results: The results showed that maximum and minimum values were belonging to Hargreaves and P and M models, respectively. Conclusion: Statistical analysis showed significant difference among the three methods and coefficient variant for daily and monthly analysis was 18.49 and 7.17 respectively. However, the difference between mean value of P and M and Hargreaves, that has the most different, is 1 mm year^-1.

Change Detection Using Neural Network with Improvement Factor in Satellite images

Problem statement: The aim of this study is to investigate the applicability of using the neural network techniques in change detection of remotely sensed data. Approach: In addition, the tuning parameters of the network, such as encoding the output classes, adding the momentum term and learning rate, are investigated in order to achieve best network performance. Results: Neural network-based change detection system in this study is implemented using back propagation-training algorithm. This trained network is designed to be able to detect efficiently any variation between two images and provide adequate information about the type of changes. In an effort to meet these requirements, neural network scheme with improvement factor, leaning rate and momentum term is proposed to monitor environmental changes in Toshka area, Egypt. Two sets of satellite images with different dates are used, the first set contains of two sample satellite images, the second set of images acquired on 1984, 2000 and 2003. Conclusion/Recommendations: Comparing the output of the proposed model with the mostly used change detection techniques; ratio and classification, results show a great potential as the proposed scheme was able to identify not only the changed and non-changed area but also it was capable to identify the nature of these changes.

Ecological Capability Assessment for Multiple-Use in Forest Areas Using Geographic Information System-Based Multiple Criteria Decision Making Approach

Problem statement: A valuable Source of plant and animal various species in the west of Iran is Zagros forests that, misuses by foresters and local societies has caused severe degradation. In this study, forest areas ecological assessment was carried out with a (GIS)-based MCDM approach for multiple-use planning in order to reduce degradation and improving sustainability. Approach: All of possible land uses were evaluated separately. The AHP was used to defining weight of criteria and sub-criteria. Sub-criteria were mapped at GIS environment using available data, fieldwork and IRSp6 data. A priority map for each land use was created using GIS-based WLC model. The final priority map was produced of overlying all priority maps. Ecological capability map were generated with editing priority map using present land use map, IRSp6 data, forest laws and fieldwork. Results: The Weights of criteria and sub- criteria was defined for all land uses with CR<0.10. The most important criteria and sub-criteria for each land use were resulted, too. The final priority map was indicated preference of suitable land uses for each area, ecologically. The suitability map was showed areas that are enforceable land use together. Also, the area of each suitable land use was distinct. In more than of 70% study area, current use is not based on ecological criteria, which were caused severe degradation. Conclusion: The results of this study showed that various land uses meaning multiple-use can be exist in area study that executing of those will be cause decreasing of foresters dependence to forest trees, decreasing of degradation and forest sustainability. Thus, this integrated approach could be benefit forest planners and decision makers. Recommendation: Through this study, we aimed at suggesting to forest management and other stakeholders an approach that is scientifically sound and practical.

Effect of Skidding Operations on Soil Carbon Storage of a Tropical Peat Swamp Forest

Problem statement: There is still lack of a study that compares the soil carbon storage of kuda-kuda skidding system and excavator skidding system in tropical peat swamp forests. The objective of this study was to determine whether skidding operations affects soil carbon storage of a tropical peat swamp forest. Approach: Soil sampling was conducted on two different plots (0.3 ha each plot) to a depth of 15 cm under different skidding systems at Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia. Plots were in the same forest concession area but considerably independent from each other. The soil samples were analyzed for acidity, organic matter content, total carbon, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The humic acid extraction was also done and soil carbon storage values were obtained by calculation. The calculation of carbon storage was by the bulk density method. Unpaired t-test was used to compare variables under the two systems and correlation analysis was used to correlate variables (pH, soil organic matter, total carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, C/N ratio, C/P ratio, humic acid yield, unstable carbon and stable carbon). Results: Soil organic matter, total carbon and unstable carbon were found to be negatively correlated with nitrogen but positively correlated with C/N ratio under kuda-kuda skidding system indicating that the lower nitrogen and higher C/N ratio markedly slowed decomposition process and enabled soil organic matter to accumulate as well as total carbon. Unstable carbon stocks under excavator skidding system was found to be higher (130.200 Mg ha^-1) compared with kuda-kuda skidding system (117.124 Mg ha^-1), under kuda-kuda skidding system, unstable carbon stock seemed to be preserved better and this was because of the better carbon storage. Although stable carbon contents of the two systems were similar, the excavator skidding system had faster decomposition processes, thus unstable carbon stocks decomposed more and this probably affects its function as carbon storage for further periods. Total phosphorus positively correlated with nitrogen but negatively correlated with C/N ratio under kuda-kuda skidding system, indicating that low nitrogen (0.914%) results in high C/N ratio (55.236) and this may have affected phosphorus (0.024%), thus enabled organic material to accumulate instead of losses through decomposition process. The low phosphorus (0.024%) or high C/P ratio (2346.345) under kuda-kuda skidding system resulted in decreased soil pH (3.552), thus enabled soil organic matter (97.603%) and total carbon (48.802%) to accumulate as well as unstable carbon stocks (117.124 Mg ha^-1). Conclusion: The application of skidding systems in this peat swamp forest possibly alters their carbon storage particularly unstable carbon by altering their decomposition rates. Kuda-kuda skidding system is able to maintain decomposition process in this peat swamp forest. Hence, unstable carbon stocks can be preserved for further persistent breakdown processes, hence maintaining their function for carbon storage.

Groundwater Resources Pollution Risk: Application of the Holman Method

Problem statement: The aim of this study is to make an attempt to assess, through the application of the Holman Method, the effects that a careless management of human induced activities could have on aquifers and in particular on tapping wells used for human supply. Approach: The study had been applied to two different territories, as far as both the geomorphological and human induced aspects are concerned: the city of Aosta, the capital city of the Autonomous Aosta Valley region and three municipalities located in the centre of the Veneto region. Results: Thanks to the first results that had been obtained from the application of this method and other ones, it is hoped that a strategic territorial management approach will be adopted in the future so that the Groundwater Resources (GWR) can coexist with the economic and urban developments. Conclusion: All the analysis had been implemented utilizing a Geographical Information System (GIS).

Suitability of Using Phragmites australis and Tamarix aphylla as Vegetation Filters in Industrial Areas

Problem Statement: Many soils of different areas of the world are subjected to heavy metal pollution due to human activities especially the industry. These metals are hazardous to human health and could affect ecosystems. Toxic metal pollution in water and soil is a major environmental problem and most conventional remediation approaches do not provide acceptable solution, hence the studies of reducing such effects were launched. Phytoremediation, popularly known as green clean is an ecologically recommended strategy for the removal of toxic contaminations from the environment by using plants. Approach: The present study is an attempt to assess the suitability of using two species namely: Phragmites australis and Ttamarix aphylla as vegetation filterers in an industrial area to reduce the danger of contamination of heavy metals in the environment. The studied species viz. Phragmites australis and Tamarix aphylla were collected at four different locations (A, B, C and D) around a petrochemical and detergents factory in the industrial areas of Eastern Region, Dammam city, Saudi Arabia. The concentrations of seven heavy metals (Fe, Mn, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd and Cu) were evaluated in different organs of Phragmites australis and Tamarix aphylla. Also, Soil samples were collected from each location for the chemical and mechanical analyses. Results: The results showed that the concentrations of heavy metals in Phragmites australis and Tamarix aphllya exhibited the same trend. In shoots of the studied species, Zn accumulated less heavy metals than the under ground parts, creeping rhizome and roots. The highest bioaccumulation factor (BAF) for Cd and Zn was noted in location B. In general, Zn was the most absorbed element followed by Fe, Mn while Ni as well as Pb and Cd were accumulated in lower quantities. In chemical and physical analyses of soil samples, location C showed the highest concentration of all of the investigated elements and it is the most alkaline with more clay and organic carbon. Conclusion/Recommendation: The present results demonstrated that both species are significant as vegetation filter and for cleaning the soils from contamination with heavy metals by phytoextraction. There is a great need to use the advantages of these plants in phytoremediation of environment. In the same time continuous harvesting of their shoots could be suitable way to recycling heavy metals.

Effect of Logging Operation on Soil Carbon Storage of a Tropical Peat Swamp Forest

Problem statement: Since heavy machinery are used in the logging operation activity for extracting the logs on sensitive forest site with peat soil, environment destruction should be the other concern during its processes especially on its important function as soil carbon storage. The objective of this study was to determine whether logging operation affect soil carbon storage of a tropical peat swamp forest. Approach: Soil sampling was conducted before and after logging operation in a 0.3 ha plot to a depth of 15 cm. The soil samples were analyzed for acidity, organic matter content, total carbon, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The humic acid extraction was also done and soil carbon storage values were obtained by calculation. Paired t-test was used to compare variables under the two treatments (before and after logging) and correlation analysis was used to correlate variables such as soil pH, soil organic matter, total carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, C/N ratio, C/P ratio, humic acid yield, unstable carbon and stable carbon. Results: The availability of unstable carbon and stable carbon controlled by soil acidity on undisturbed peat swamp forest as a result, the accumulation of unstable carbon as well as stable carbon occurred even if the soil pH declines and vice versa. However, stable carbon associated well with soil acidity. It was found that the C/P ratio positively correlated with humic acid and stable carbon of both before and after logging conditions. Nevertheless, that association was prominent on logged peat swamp forest. An indication that even though this peat swamp forest had been logged, humification was strongly maintained. However, the similarity of stable carbon of the logged peat swamp forest with stable carbon of undisturbed peat swamp forest indicate an ineffectiveness humification of logged peat swamp forest. Conclusion: Logging operation on sensitive forest with peat soil using heavy machinery increased the bulk density because of compaction. Soil acidity has important role in preserving soil carbon storage of this natural peat swamp forest, especially stable carbon. After the peat swamp forest is logged, humification processes are strongly maintained but slows and becomes ineffective, hence unstable carbon decomposes more instead of it being preserved as stable carbon. Disturbance by logging operation does not alter their amount of soil carbon storage (stable carbon) due to the carbon in humic acid is quite stable within one year.

Effects of Crude Oil and Spent Oil on Clarias garipinus: A Typical Marine Fish

Problem statement: Petroleum hydrocarbon and petroleum residue (i.e., spent oil) remains the foremost pollutants to the fish communities in various aquatic media-ponds, streams, rivers, creeks, coastal and marine environments through indiscriminate disposal of oil contaminated drilling muds, cutting and oil spillages. Approach: Also, the spent oil enters into aquatic media through run-off following unguided disposal. Both the petroleum hydrocarbon and spent oil, on getting to the water bodies spread fast and produce lethal, sub-lethal and even acute effect of petroleum hydrocarbon and spent oil on the fingerlings and other juvenile fishes. Results: Since this group of fish constitutes about 60% of the fish population in any aquatic medium, a green house study was carried out to assess the effects of crude oil and spent oil on fingerlings of Clarias garipinus-a typical marine fish. In this study, fingerlings of Clarias garipinus were exposed to 2-10% concentration of crude oil and spent oil for 96 h period. Readings were taken every 24 h. From concentration of 4-10%, high mortality rate averaging 10 out of 10 fingerlings were recorded. Conclusion/Recommendations: The deaths were attributed to reduced dissolved oxygen and blockage of the water surface by the oils. Concentrations of 2% showed a reduced level of mortality, which even lapsed over the 96 h period. The mortalities were owed to impairment in neurologically dysfunction. Changes in physiological character such as changes in skin color and reduced locomotive actions were also observed.

Potential Plant Species for Live Pole Application in Tropical Environment

Problem statement: Slope instability causing landslides, a major geologic hazard, is a risk common to most regions. Among all categories of landslides, shallow slope failures which affect many hill slopes and earthwork projects are the most wide spread and pose the most costly maintenance problem. One of the soil improvement methods that seem suitable for preventing shallow slope failures is the Live Pole technique. Approach: Due to the geographical variability in the application of this technique in different regions this study was carried out in a tropical environment. Results: This study initially describes the requirement for suitable live poles in tropical regions utilizing indigenous woody species and potential candidates. It then describes screening tests trials that these species were put through to observe their propagation from large live cuttings obtained from branches of small trees and shrubs, viz., tests for root and stem growth in a controlled medium under shade-house conditions with irrigation and then discusses the results of these for their suitability for field trials by replanting in selected natural soils. Conclusion/Recommendations: The results of these screening tests found two species, namely, Hibiscus tiliaceus (Ht/i>) and Dillenia suffructicosa (Ds) which met the requirements for field test trials.

Ozone Treatment of Animal Manure for Odor Control
Problem statement: The effectiveness of ozone in reducing odor emission from liquid animal manure was evaluated under batch and continuous treatment operations. Results: The results indicated that the use of ozone for the treatment of animal manure proved to be effective in reducing the odor offensiveness. A minimum 3.4 level out of 10 (66% reduction) was achieved in the continuous operation; while a minimum of 3.1 (69% reduction) was achieved in the batch operation. Increasing the level of ozone (O₃) increased the level of offensiveness which was attributed to the presence of intermediate products due to the interaction between ozone and hydrogen sulfide and methylamine. Conclusion: The cost analysis indicated that the treatment is economical as a ton of manure could be treated at a cost of $ 0.23.

A Cost Effective and User Friendly Approach to Design Wireline Formation Tests
Problem statement: Wireline formation testing (also named Mini-DSTs) are gaining more and more popularity as a possible alternative to conventional well testing especially where there are major environmental and economical constraints. The increased offshore exploration activity, which often implies highly risky and huge operational costs, makes the conventional well testing less attractive in favor of other technologies that can provide some of the key dynamic information about the well-reservoir system through relatively quick and less expensive operations. The design phase is recognized to be one of the most critical aspects in order to guarantee an acceptable value of information in exploration scenarios where very limited data is available. The success of any mini-DST operation can be significantly compromised if two major issues are not addressed in the design phase: possibility to clearly identify the radial flow behavior and avoidance of noise in the pressure response due to the gauge resolution. Approach: The study consisted in the development of a new tool for mini-DST design to easily identify whether this technology can be successfully applied. The tool comprises dimensionless and dimensional charts, which are of general validity because they can be applied to any lithological environment and for any type of hydrocarbon. Results: Field applications proved the reliability of the charts: First of all the test durations were optimized to collect interpretable bottomhole pressures and to obtain valid reservoir characterizations. Besides, a cost saving effectiveness was achieved avoiding the acquisition of useless extra-data affected by noise due to gauge resolution. Conclusion/Recommendations: The use of the charts is strongly suggested at the early stage of decision making for new exploration/appraisal operations; they are a user-friendly tool for assessing the feasibility of a mini-DST test. Additionally, the charts are more versatile with respect to available commercial software in managing uncertainties of the major input parameters.

Development of a Fully Coupled Approach for Evaluation of Wellbore Stability in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Problem statement: When a well is drilled in a hydrocarbon reservoir, the original thermodynamic conditions are altered, the natural stresses are redistributed and a stress concentration occurs around the hole. The alteration of the original equilibrium can lead to wellbore damage, sometimes to its complete collapse. Loss of time associated with stability problems is estimated to account for 12-15% of drilling costs world-wide. Approach: The adoption of a reliable modeling approach to predict instability due to time-dependent alteration of natural equilibrium is fundamental for the optimization of drilling plans, completion design and production activities. Results: In this study the possibility of investigating instability phenomena in terms of both stress-strain and thermo-dynamic formation behavior through a fully coupled thermo-poro-elasto-plastic approach is demonstrated. According to the fully coupled approach, porous flow, temperature development and stress-strain calculations are performed together: the whole system is discretised on one grid domain and solved simultaneously for both the thermodynamic and the geomechanical variables. For the plastic analysis implementation, an iteratively coupled approach was adopted inside the fully coupled routine: the model basic equations (porous flow and rock deformation) and the plastic behavior equations were solved separately and sequentially at each non-linear iteration. The iterative coupling approach corresponds to an implicit treatment of the plastic variables, essential to preserve the stability of the elasto-plastic solution. The key points of the model analytical formulation, of the numerical formalization as well as of the implementation of the adopted solutions to make the thermo-poro-elasto-plastic model applicable to assess wellbore stability are presented. Conclusion: The proposed model was first validated and then applied to several synthetic and real cases. In this study the effectiveness of the developed model to investigate the potential impact of instability phenomena on the well drilling design is demonstrated also by discussing the results from a case history.

Green Methodologies to Test Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
Problem statement: The definition and the economic viability of the best development strategy of a hydrocarbon reservoir mainly depend on the quantity and type of fluids and on the well productivity. Well testing, consisting in producing hydrocarbon to the surface while measuring the pressure variations induced in the reservoir, has been used for decades to determine the fluid nature and well potential. In exploration and appraisal scenarios the hydrocarbons produced during a test are flared, contributing to the emissions of greenhouse gases. Approach: Due to more stringent environmental regulations and a general need for reduced operating expenses, the current industry drivers in today�s formation evaluation methodologies demand short, safe, cost-effective and environmentally friendly test procedures, especially when conventional tests are prohibitively expensive, logistically not feasible or no surface emissions are allowed. Different methods have been proposed or resuscitated in the last years, such as wireline formation tests, closed chamber tests, production/reinjection tests and injection tests, as viable alternatives to conventional well testing. Results: While various short-term tests, test procedures and interpretation methods are apparently available for conducting successful tests without hydrocarbon production at the surface, clarity is lacking for specific applications of these techniques. An attempt to clarify advantages and limitations of each methodology, particularly with respect to the main testing target is pursued in this study. Specific insight is provided on injection testing, which is one of the most promising methodology to replace traditional well testing in reservoir characterization, except for the possibility to sample the formation fluids. Conclusion/Recommendations: Not a single one method but a combination of more methodologies, in particular injection testing and wireline formation testing, is the most promising strategy to achieve all the targets of a conventional well testing with no surface hydrocarbon production, increased safety during operations and reduction of the testing costs

Impacts of Trade and Environment on Sustainable Development
Problem statement: This study investigated the issues of trade and environment on sustainable development. It has reviewed the existing literatures on trade and environment and conceptualized the economic, environmental and social effects of sustainable development. The review has six parts. Approach: Firstly, we discussed the market access, barriers to trade and impediments. Secondly, we state the trade liberalization, timber trade and environment. Results: Thirdly, we analyzed the agreements on tropical timber. Fourthly, we explained illegal logging, deforestation and pollution on trade and environment. Fifthly, we study sustainable forest management. Conclusion: Finally, we related the sustainable development on tropical timber trade. The purpose of this study was to highlight and clarify the impacts of trade and environment on sustainable development.

Evaluating Plant Species Diversity and Physiographical Factors in Natural Broad Leaf Forest
Problem statement: Species diversity is one of the most important specifications of biological societies. Diversity of organisms, measurement of variety and examination of those hypotheses that are about reasons of diversity are such as affairs that have been desired by the ecologists for a long time. Approach: In this research, diversity of plant species in forest region, numbers of 60 sample plots in 256.00 m^-2 had been considered in random-systematic inventory was considered. In each sample plot, four micro-plots in 2.25 m^-2 in order to study on herbal cover, were executed that totally 240 micro-plots were considered. At each plot six diversity indices in relation to physiographic factors (slope, geographical aspect and altitude from the sea level) were studied. Results: The results indicated that species diversity is more in the northern aspect and also species diversity in slops less than 30% has the most amounts. Factor of altitude from the sea level did not have meaningful relation with species diversity. Conclusion: Through study on correlation of the numbers of species in sample plots with indices and also process and role of indices in different processors of analysis, Simpson�s reciprocal index was suggested as suitable index in this type of studies.

Waste Disposal and Pollution Management in Urban Areas: A Workable Remedy for the Environment in Developing Countries
Problem statement: Both wastes and the crude disposal techniques have created subtle and yet serious environmental pollution havoc in many developing countries. This has lead to the degradation of abiotic and biotic components of these nations� ecological systems. Poor industrial waste disposal systems as well as the indiscriminate and inappropriate domestic litter disposal habit have been identified and proved to be basic features in rural settlements, semi-urban areas and urban centers of the developing world. These have seriously contributed to environmental pollution and ecological deterioration. The major reasons for these were identified to be inadequate information and insufficient modern waste disposal facilities. Approach: This study highlighted the use of simple, yet efficient waste disposal techniques and recommends the adequate supply and optimal utilization of trashcan and rubbish drums in private and public places; the consistent and wide use of recyclable materials and recycling equipment; information flow and training of all on the use of new techniques and methods and the need for the production and/or introduction of other appropriate technology and policy to enhance the implementation and execution of proper waste management schemes that will contribute to a cleaner and safer environment in developing countries. Results: As a result, sanitary landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to reduce the reliance on waste incineration. Conclusion: In the light of this review research, I recommend that there should be private participation in managing wastes in the developing nation. Since the largest percentage of wastes in developing countries is mainly organic, composting of wastes should be encouraged.

Arsenic and Antimony Content in Soil and Plants from Baia Mare Area, Romania
Problem statement: The objective of this research was to evaluate the degree of soil contamination with arsenic and antimony in Baia Mare, a nonferrous mining and metallurgical center located in the North West region of Romania. The soil in the area is affected by the emissions of powders containing metals from metallurgical factories. Previous studies indicated the soil contamination with copper, zinc, cadmium and lead, but there is few data about the actual level of soil pollution with arsenic and antimony. Approach: The soil samples were collected from 2 districts of Baia Mare: Ferneziu, which is located in the proximity of a lead smelter and Săsar district which is located along the Săsar River in the preferential direction of the wind over a metallurgical factory producing lead. As reference was considered Dura area located in a less polluted hilly area, in the west part of the town. Samples of soil and plants from the residential area of Ferneziu, Săsar and Dura districts were collected. The arsenic determination was carried out by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and the antimony determination by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results: In Ferneziu area, the concentration of arsenic in soil ranged between 0.25 and 255 mg kg^-1. In Săsar district the arsenic concentration in the soil ranged between 5.5 and 295 mg kg^-1. Regarding antimony, in Ferneziu area the concentration ranged between 5.3 and 40.6 mg kg^-1; while in Săsar, antimony soils concentrations vary in the range: 0.9-18.4. Arsenic and antimony concentrations in plants were low for almost of the samples, both in Ferneziu and Săsar area indicating a low mobility of these elements in the studied soils. Conclusion: This study indicated the soil pollution with arsenic both in Ferneziu district and in Săsar district. The soil pollution with antimony was found especially in Ferneziu district.

Removal of Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Nickel from Aqueous Solution by White, Yellow and Red United Arab Emirates Sand
Problem statement: To remove toxic heavy metal ions from wastewater using local sand as a low cost adsorbent. Approach: Removal efficiency of Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II) and Ni(II) from aqueous solution by white, yellow and red UAE sand was investigated at 25.0�C using the methods of batch equilibrium adsorption and column filtration. In each case, a mixture containing 20 ppm of each ion was employed. In the equilibrium study, the effect of sand dosage was measured for mixtures containing 20 ppm of each ion. In the column filtration study, the mixture was added to a column packed with yellow sand and the composition of the effluent was measured for each 0.050 dm³ portion. Concentrations were measured on an inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometer �ICP-AES�. Results: Removal efficiency by sand type was found to follow the order yellow>white>red. At low sand dosages, removal efficiencies of Pb(II) and Cu(II) were much higher than those for Ni(II) and Cd(II). For example, at a sand dosage of 0.02 kg dm^-3, removal efficiencies of Pb(II), Cu(II), Cd(II) and Ni(II) were, respectively, 95, 86, 33 and 23% for yellow sand; 89, 86, 30 and 18% for white sand; and 75, 63, 12 and 13% for red sand. Column filtration using yellow sand confirmed that removal efficiency followed the order Pb(II)>Cu(II)>Cd(II)>Ni(II), with all four ions completely removed at mass ratios (metal/sand) lower than 3.0�10^-4. Conclusion: Equilibration on sand and sand filtration are most efficient for the removal Pb(II) and Cu(II). Sand filtration can be effectively utilized to separate Pb(II) and Cu(II) from a mixture containing all four ions.

Part I: Removing of Zn(II) from Polluted Water: Determination of Precipitation Limit Of Zn(II) Ion With 2-Hydroxy-1,2,3-Propanetricarboxylic Acid
Problem statement: The goal of this research was to investigate the condition for removing of Zn cation from water, through precipitation method with 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid as ligand. Approach: In this study we examined the precipitation of Zn(II) ion in water solutions of ZnSO₄ � 7H₂O (1�10^-2 and 5�10^-3 mol L^-1) with 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid (1�10^-1-1�10^-3 mol L^-1) in constant ionic strength of 0.6 mol L^-1 NaCl. We have determined the concentration region at which Zn(II) start to precipitate. Results: From precipitation diagrams of zinc with 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid, in ionic force 0.6 mol L^-1 NaCl, we have found that during decreasing the concentration of 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid, in case of constant concentration of Zn(II), the limit of precipitation is shifted to lower values of pH. The solid phase is analyzed by IR spectroscopy. Conclusion: From the IR spectroscopic analysis we can conclude that Zn(II) ion can precipitate with 2-hydroxy-1,2,3-propanetricarboxylic acid.