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The Relationship between Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Problem statement: Organizational justice and its relationship with citizenship behavior is one of the basic and important subjects of successful organizations. In this competitive world, making a sense of organizational justice in staff, increases functional ability and organizational citizenship behavior. Approach: This research includes 5 hypotheses which evaluate the relationship between organizational justice dimensions and organizational citizenship behavior. Organizational justice dimensions consist of: organizational justice, distributive justice, policy justice, inter individual justice and informational justice. The present research method is analytical-descriptive and its type is correlation. The method of collecting data is questionnaire. It is also a field research. Results: The findings of this research show that all the organizational justice dimensions which were qualified by correlation coefficient test are positively related to organizational citizenship behavior. Thus, the hypotheses were verified. Conclusion: Finally, informational justice mechanisms should be planned in a way that policies and relations are made justly.

The Impact of CRM on the Customer Satisfaction in Agricultural Bank

Problem statement: There is much research on this subject, but none of them is about the use of customer relationship management for boosting the bank customer satisfaction. While we have not any study about customer satisfaction in Agricultural Bank especially in Qom providence. Approach: The research method was applied one and from viewpoint of the process, was considered to be descriptive-survey. This research in which statistical analysis methods, such as Friedman's variance analysis, binomial test as well as single-sample Student's t test, were used. Since there were numerous samples in the research population (which includes the customers of Agricultural Bank), it was supposed to be infinite. Simple random sampling method had been used to determine the number of the customers of Qom province�s Agricultural Bank among which 384 the sample size for this statistical research. At the present research, customer relationship management was considered to be an independent variable: its variables included services quality, access to services and their properties. Office of customer complaints was considered as an independent variable, while the customer satisfaction is a dependent variable. Results: Considering the table results, highest rank was related to services access with a mean rank of 2.96 while lowest rank with the mean value of 2.18, is for the office of customer complaints. Considering the results of the table above it can be found that for the bank referrers, �to behave respectfully� and �not be tiresome the queue� were considered as the most and the least important indexes, respectively, finally let to confirm all hypotheses. Conclusion: As per research result, there was positive relationship between customer relationship management and customer satisfaction in Agricultural Bank, Qom providence. Since the suggestions will be proposed based on the results obtained from hypothesis testing, recommendation had been mentioned for boosting the customer satisfaction.

A Bound Test Approach to Cointegration of Tourism Demand

Problem statement: Given the high contribution of tourism industry in the Malaysian economy, Malaysia has a vast view to increase its market share of the international tourist arrivals in the Asia Pacific region. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the long run and short run demand for tourism from top ten markets (country). Approach: To accomplish this objective the ARDL bound test approach to cointegration was carried out for quarterly time series data from 1998:Q1 to 2007: Q3. A three-stage procedure followed to test the direction of causality. In the first stage the order of integration was tested using the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips Perron (PP) unit root tests. The second stage involved testing for the existence of a long-run equilibrium relationship between arrivals, income, tourism price, tourism substitute price and travel cost. The third stage involved constructing standard Granger-type causality tests augmented with a lagged error-correction term where the series were cointegrated. Results: The result of ADF and PP unit root tests confirmed that all variables were stationary at first difference. In addition the results indicated that a long run relationship and between variables. Conclusion: The results indicated that tourists from these ten countries seem to be highly sensitive to the price and the alternative destinations are complementary to Malaysia. In addition the results showed that the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS, 2003) had a negative affects significantly affected Malaysia�s tourism demand.

Distribution and Determining of Tourist Attractions and Modeling of Tourist Cities for the City of Isfahan-Iran

Problem statement: Cities have different attractions and usually have tourists. But Management and development sustainable tourist activities needs planning. Approach: This research used survey method and taxonomy analysis to study the spatial pattern of tourist attractions in Isfahan city. Isfahan city is chosen because of numerous tourist attractions and its importance at national and regional level and also its multi role. The research was done from March to November 2008. Results: The result of statistical analysis shows that tourist attractions in Isfahan can be classified into four groups. Conclusion: On the basis of the result of study, the spatial pattern of tourist attractions is obtained that can be used for the management and planning based on the result a spatial model of tourism consumption in large cities was developed.

Distribution and Determining of Tourist Attractions and Modeling of Tourist Cities for the City of Isfahan-Iran

Acceptance and Use of Strategic Processes in Developing Countries

Problem statement: The concept of strategy has become a major process in for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. These organizations have used the process to understand issues which they cannot control but have a significant impact on their success and use their limited resources and competencies to improve their competitive positions. The process was used in developed economies and primarily by businesses with large scale operations. The purpose of this study is to extend the previous findings by examining the nature and practice of strategic planning in a different environmental context, that of the developing transitional economy of Turkey. Approach: The literature review was conducted to explore the usage of strategic processes in developing countries. The research which includes 71 companies was also conducted. Our research sample was drawn from the Istanbul Chamber of Industry database which listed the top 500 manufacturing firms. The frequency distribution analyses were conducted to the data. Results: Our results clearly showed that the managerial skills and competitive processes used by the domestic organizations are evolving and will create significant competitive challenges for the new entrants into these transitory environments. The foreign owned firms adopt a broader and deeper repertoire of tools and techniques of strategic planning than do local firms. Conclusion: Even though the findings showed a significant increase in the importance and use of strategic tools and processes in Turkey, a transitional economy, they also showed that there are continuing major differences in the use of these same tools and processes between competing firms from a transitional economy Vs a developed economy. By identifying and documenting the levels of strategic process and the types of strategic tools employed by the companies in differing stages of transitory economies, we can develop a roadmap and incorporate this knowledge to educate and prepare the managerial talents in these economies.

Evaluating Experiential Learning in Organizational Behavior: Taking Measure of Student Perception Regarding Group Experience

Problem statement: The purpose of this study was to determine undergraduate student perceptions in the areas of group experience within the context of an undergraduate organizational behavior business class community service assignment. College students, as part of an in-class service-learning project, were assigned to teach business related curriculum to at-risk high school students. Approach: Students, enrolled in the required senior level business course, were then assessed in the following areas: service learning experience and group experience. A multiple-choice questionnaire was administered to undergraduate students in an organizational and administrative behavior class and analyzed for correlations and relationships. The survey was administered in week eleven of a traditional semester and in the last week of the community service project. The survey was comprised of seven questions relating to group experience and one based on the impact of the community service project itself. Results: Significant findings revealed a positive correlation between the group experience and the feelings toward the project. In addition, multiple linear regressions suggested a positive and significant prediction. Conclusion: From the findings, implications for the development of experiential learning projects for use in the college classroom will be discussed. When paired with the results of previous research, the findings of this research can be very useful in developing group based service learning projects at the undergraduate level. Based upon the importance of service learning as an experiential teaching style, it is critical to understand how to better use this vehicle for discovery.

New Entry, International Location Patterns and Welfare

Problem statement: Recently, firms have very actively invested across national borders and the international concentration of industrial activities in emerging countries and developed countries has been rapid. In the new international trade literature, static trade models with firms� location have been widely used, but do not allow for endogenous spatial distribution of firms in the literature. In addition, few studies address the impact of an exogenous increase in the given number of firms on location patterns and welfare in the general equilibrium trade models. Approach: This study constructed a two-country model with monopolistic competition where firms can relocate and pure profits are positive because the total number of firms is fixed. Results: The results indicated that when the given number of firms increases due to new entry, then the number of firms in each country increases at the rate that is equal to the relative size of country and consumers benefit from it. Conclusion: This study simply had analyzed the effects of an exogenous increase in the number of firms. In order to endogenize the number of firms, modeling of R and D investment is necessary. The other weakness of this study is the assumption that a country owns a constant share of the world profit. I expect that the research would become more interesting if the domestic share of the world profit is made endogenous. These extensions remain for future research.

Push Vs Pull: Factors Influence Student Retention

Problem statement: Student retention becomes one of the most significant issues that administrators of colleges and universities must deal with in today�s highly competitive market. Approach: In fact retaining a student is fundamental to the ability of an institution to carry out its mission. A high rate of attrition is not only a fiscal problem for schools, but a symbolic failure of an institution to achieve its purpose. Results: There are many ways to keep students retain at the same college until graduation, some easier than people may think but great changes will have to be made in order for schools to complete these transformations. This study is a descriptive study about the factors that influence student retention rate at a higher educational institution. Conclusion/Recommendations: Based on the previous studies of the similar topic and a random sample survey, this study identifies the possible push and pull factors that promote student leave from a specific college and transfer to other colleges to continue their college studies, it probes the implementable solutions to help the college to maintain and increase the student retention rate.

Determinants of Poster Reputation on Internet Stock Message Boards

Problem statement: I investigate the determinants of poster reputation in a user-rewarding reputation system on Thelion!WallStreetPit stock message board. My empirical analyses deal with two hypotheses: First, is a poster�s reputation affected by his/her characteristics at the time the message was posted? Second, is reputation also associated with the characteristics of the stock to which the message refers? Approach: To answer these two questions, I tested two sets of explanatory variables in relation to poster reputation in two fixed-effects panel regressions. Results: First, the poster�s popularity in the community, the poster�s sentiment, information quality not quantity and one day follow-up opinion on the stock all have positive impacts on the poster�s reputation; Second, recommending stocks with high price to earnings ratio and high institutional investors holding percentage reduce the chance of receiving reputation credits while promoting high liquidity stocks did the opposite. Conclusion: This study discarded light on the future construction of a credit-weighted sentiment index should the researchers consider weighing each poster�s sentiment based on its reputation. This study also helped us to build a more effective and better functional reputation system in the future. Finally, findings in this study allowed us to better examine the relationship between sentiment and stock returns in future studies.

Assessment of Quality Management Practices Within the Healthcare Industry

Problem Statement: Considerable effort has been devoted over the years by many organizations to adopt quality management practices, but few studies have assessed critical factors that affect quality practices in healthcare organizations. The problem addressed in this study was to assess the critical factors influencing the quality management practices in a single important industry (i.e., healthcare). Approach: A survey instrument was adapted from business quality literature and was sent to all hospitals in a large US Southeastern state. Valid responses were received from 147 of 189 hospitals yielding a 75.6% response rate. Factor analysis using principal component analysis with an orthogonal rotation was performed to assess 58 survey items designed to measure ten dimensions of hospital quality management practices. Results: Eight factors were shown to have a statistically significant effect on quality management practices and were classified into two groups: (1) four strategic factors (role of management leadership, role of the physician, customer focus, training resources investment) and (2) four operational factors (role of quality department, quality data/reporting, process management/training and employee relations). The results of this study showed that a valid and reliable instrument was developed and used to assess quality management practices in hospitals throughout a large US state. Conclusion: The implications of this study provided an understanding that management of quality required both a focus on longer-term strategic leadership, as well as day-to-day operational management. It was recommended that healthcare researchers and practitioners focus on the critical factors identified and employ this survey instrument to manage and better understand the nature of hospital quality management practices across wider geographical regions and over longer time periods. Furthermore, this study extended the scope of existing quality management literature to the healthcare industry throughout an entire state and contributed to theory about the nature of quality management practices.

The Marginalization of Globally-Born Businesses: Ethnically Divided Trade in Hamburg and the World Economy-The Case of Global Persian Carpet Trade through Ethnic Networks

Problem statement: Persian carpets have long been a major commodity in the world market, controlled by the Tehran Carpet Bazaar and the Hamburg Free Harbor. Today about 200 private traders in the Hamburg Free Harbor area export their carpets to about 10,000 private carpet traders throughout the world, these being mainly of Iranian origin. The case of Persian Carpet represents one of the most magnificent and powerful examples of ethnic enclave economy in contemporary world. Approach: This study brought about some in depth knowledge, qualitative as well as quantitative, of how such an ethnic enclave economy of scale operates, how it reproduced itself and how it met the challenges, be it political, demographical or others. Results: The study showed, that in spite of major political turbulence in Iran since 1979, the spreading of state controlled trading companies inside and outside of Iran and increasing international market pressure due to the growth of copying production of Persian carpets in other countries, the Tehran-Hamburg axis remains the core of this trade-with private Iranian traders occupying the dominant position on both sides of the transaction line. Taking a closer look it became obvious that in particular, it is Iranian traders of Azarbaidjan descent who speak �Azari�, a language similar to Turkish, who control the trade in both cities. Understanding the character and strategies of ethnic economy and ethnic enclave economy this study concludes, that it was necessary to look beyond and within the demarcation of national background and even ethnic boundaries in a broader sense according to which these phenomena mistakenly had been attempted to be explained. Conclusion: The engine of ethnic enclave economy cannot be upheld without a core, entrance into mainstream economy which required both more than common national and ethnic background. The challenge for this economy is how to dissolve from strong ties to more loose organization based on rationally structured mode of organization. So far, however, the limited group of traders stick together in order to remain in control of this world-wide billion dollars trade.

Two-Versions of Conjugate Gradient-Algorithms Based on Conjugacy Conditions for Unconstrained Optimization

Problem statement: (CG) algorithms, which we had investigated in this study, were widely used in optimization, especially for large scale optimization problems, because it did not need the storage of any matrix. The purpose of this construction was to find new CG-algorithms suitable for solving large scale optimization problems. Approach: Based on pure conjugacy condition and quadratic convex function two new versions of (CG) algorithms were derived and observed that they were generate descent directions for each iteration, the global convergence analysis of these algorithms with Wolfe line search conditions had been proved. Results: Numerical results for some standard test functions were reported and compared with the classical Fletcher-Reeves and Hestenes-Stiefel algorithms showing considerable improving over these standard CG-algorithms. Conclusion: Two new versions of CG-algorithms were proposed in this study with their numerical properties and convergence analysis and they were out perform on the standard HS and FR CG-algorithms.

Determinants of Outward Foreign Direct Investments from Small Island Developing States

Managers Empowering Employees

Regionalism and Its Effects on Iranian Agricultural Exports: The Case of Economic Cooperation Organization

The Importance of Capturing and Using Financial Information in Small Business

Effects of Information Overload on Brazilian E-Consumers

Impact of Information Asymmetry on Municipal Bond Yields: An Empirical Analysis

The Importance of Police Performance as a Determinant of Satisfaction with Police

Genetically Modified Organism Trade Route and Biosafety-Is It a Failing Synthesis?

Problem statement: GM regulations have spawned international conflicting reactions especially between US and EU, with countries requiring food aid caught midway. This article covers the following issues: Whether biotechnology policies of other countries affect the developing countries� trade in agricultural crops?� Does unregulated GM expansion and contamination, render the system fallacious? Can there be synthesis between trade and environment? Approach: This article also explores �long term effects of trading substitute GM components. Extensive research has been followed to identify the key areas of international trade and environment pertaining to GMO�s which require immediate international attention. Results: The biotech war emerged with the Cartagena Protocol which permits countries to ban unsafe GM products and requires labeling of shipments that threaten traditional crops or biodiversity. In response to stricter stand of EU banning most GMOs, the US initiated litigation before WTO which in a preliminary ruling declared EU restriction violative of trade rules. Fear of export losses discourages Asia to approve new GMOs. U N reports that, Asia�s regulatory framework is flawed and large number of tests, required to approve GMO�s safe release are not conducted causing �irreversible loss of genetic diversity�. Governments address these concerns differentially. Countries like Canada, China, and US incorporated GMOs commercially. While EU and Japan wait for full environmental assessment, the EU has issued a Directive on release and commercialization of GM crops. The EU view sharply contrasts to the WTO�s, whose contribution to sustainable development of the environment lies in trade opening in goods and innovations like GM crops. WTO does not accept the process of production as cause for trade restrictions, narrowly interpreting the exception to trade rules under Article XX. International regulations on GMOs, (considered similar to harmful agricultural crops) are undefined. Before NAFTA, corporations are challenging these as �barriers to trade� while Environmentalists are advocating the �precautionary principle�. Conclusion/Recommendations: The current climate of controversy in such key aspects across the world complicates the possibility of synthesis of trade and bio safety of GM food. Furthermore, the concept of food aid ensures that GM trade remains prevalent and unchecked. Thus, the answer to the projected environmental damage through such passage and the co-existence of trade laws alongside bio-safety demands an alteration in national as well as WTO legislations. This article attempts to evaluate the possibilities of a legislative make-over and the nuances of environmental safeguards against the proposed problems.

Emissions Trading is free Market Environmentalism the Answer?

Problem statement: Emissions trading are a product of the ideology of free market environmentalism which propagates the utilization of the market and its forces in order to ensure the protection of the environment from industries and other sources of pollution. Approach: Does the market act as an effective tool to resolve the issue of climate change was the primary reason for initiating research in this area. Another issue with the use of market forces is whether the ultimate objective of environmental protection is achieved in this study this issue is given detailed consideration by aligning emissions trading with the well established principles and environmental ethics. Results: In this study I will critically examine this mechanism and analyze whether it synchronizes with the existing and accepted forms of environment jurisprudential principles and ethics, the �polluter-pays� principle in particular. grandfathering has been the primary reason why economists and environmental lawyers across the world argue that it goes against the �polluter-pays� principle, in this study I will put forth a comparison between grandfathering and auctioning as a means to provide the carbon emission allowances. Conclusion: In conclusion, this study will come to a more nuanced proposition, wherein I suggest an alternate mechanism for trading of emissions which is more in tune with the international environment jurisprudence and ethics. In this study I arrive at a nuanced conclusion where the current mechanism has been altered to suit the principles established. This is achieved by auctioning where the polluter pays for the right to pollute and the funds obtained from this mechanism will be deposited in an environmental obligation and burden fund which will be utilized in the achievement of environmental protection. The primary significance of this research work is that it brings the current mechanism established in consonance with sound environmental principles and ethics. Through this it makes this mechanism address the environmental paradigm which is presently being ignored.

Multilateral Environmental Agreements versus World Trade Organization System: A Comprehensive Study

Problem statement: Most environmental problems have a transboundary nature and often global in scope, and can only be addressed effectively through international co-operation. Multilateral Environmental Agreement (MEA) is the main method available under the international law for countries to work together on different global environmental issues. This research was needed to observe how MEAs as agreements between states take the form of �soft law� which the parties will respect when considering actions which affect a particular environmental issue, or �hard law� which specify legally binding actions to be taken towards global environmental objectives. Approach: The main context with which the study contracted is the status, development, effectiveness, necessity and the impact of the MEA trade measures. The study discussed the inter-relationship between the MEA trade measures and the WTO rules and the possible grounds of conflict. The WTO agreements themselves contain measures allowing for environmental considerations. The agreements establish that the trade should be conducted while allowing for the optimal use of the world�s resources in accordance with the objective of sustainable development, seeking both to protect and preserve the environment and to enhance the means for doing so. Results: The study would further discuss the problems related to the increased likelihood of actual conflict between the two systems and the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the WTO. The study would discuss the scope of the core Environmental Conventions and related International Agreements taken like the Kyoto Protocol, Montreal Protocol, Basel Convention, CITES, ICCAT and the trade resolutions taken by different states under them, domestically and internationally to regulate and monitor trade practices accordingly. Conclusion: The study in the later part would give some suggestions as to why ICJ appears to be the appropriate legal system for the purpose of settling disputes resulting from clash between MEAs and WTO rules followed by a conclusion based on a deep study of the relationship between the MEA trade system and the WTO rules.

Trade Externalities of Agricultural Subsidies and World Trade Organization

Problem statement: Almost every country is spending a large proportion of its income on agricultural subsidies; still the agricultural farmers of developing countries are unable to compete globally. There is increase in dependence on food imports, and a decline in food self-reliance. The aim and objectives of this study is to highlight the multiplex nature and enormity of the trade externalities of agricultural subsidies. Approach: To understand the issues and process clearly, reference has been made to GATT Agreements, WTO Agreements on Agriculture and Subsidies, policies of different countries in this regard, scholarly writings on the subject and the cases related to it. Doctrinaire methodology, which includes analytical, descriptive and comparative method, has been followed in this study. Results: Agricultural subsidies are cardinal facet of agriculture and have a major role to play in international trade. Even after separate Agreements on Agriculture and Subsidies, the World Trade Organization still failed in minimizing agricultural subsidies. Conclusion: The developing countries should unite and cooperate among themselves, which may help in advancing the cause of their own and scaling down agricultural subsidies, which has become a stumbling block to efforts to dismantle international trade barriers.

Expecting the Unexpected Macroeconomic Volatility and Climate Policy

Problem statement: Analysts have been comparing a policy scenario with a baseline scenario of future economic conditions without the policy, to estimate the emissions reductions and costs of a climate policy. Both scenarios required assumptions about the future course of numerous factors such as population growth, technical change and non-climate policies like taxes. Approach: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of unanticipated macroeconomic shocks to growth in developing countries or a global financial crisis on the performance of three climate policy regimes: A globally-harmonized carbon tax; a global cap and trade system and the McKibbin-Wilcoxen hybrid. The G-cubed dynamic general equilibrium model has been used to explore how the shocks would affect emissions, prices, incomes and wealth under each regime. Results: It has been found that a global cap and trade regime will significantly change the way growth shocks will otherwise be transmitted between regions while price-based systems such as a global carbon tax or a hybrid policy will not. Moreover, in case of a financial meltdown, a price based system will enable significant emissions reductions at low economic cost whereas a quantity target base system will lead to loss of the opportunity for low cost emission reduction because the target is fixed. Conclusion: The results of this study have explored these issues by examining the effects of shocks that have actually occurred in the past decade: A surprising surge of economic growth in developing countries and a global financial crisis. Quantity based approaches such as a global permit trading regime tend to buffer some kinds of macro-economic shocks: Carbon prices rise and fall with the business cycle. However, price-based approaches such as a global carbon tax or a McKibbin Wilcoxen Hybrid would provide stronger firewalls to prevent adverse events in one carbon market from causing a collapse of the global system.

Reconciling the Bio Safety Protocol and the WTO Regime: Problems, Perspectives and Possibilities

Problem statement: The issue of regulation of international trade in Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) evokes a very unique, passionate and emotional debate between environmentalists and businesses. At the conceptual level itself, like most other multilateral environmental agreements, the Cartagena Protocol appears to be incompatible with the WTO Rules. Approach: Further, since there is precious little scientific certainty on the actual and potential impact of GMOs on environment and human health, and because the debate spans cultural and philosophical contours, domestic regulation of GMOs vary substantially. The most vocal among such divergences has been the trans-atlantic rift between the US and the European Community regarding the application and interpretation of the precautionary principle. All these negatively hamper international trade and fragment international market, thereby decreasing economies of scale, which in turn is a huge setback to the massive research and development costs involved in the production of GMOs. It is a particularly challenging scenario for developing countries, as it directly affects their exports, even of organic products. Results: The authors strongly believe that the benefits of bio-technology shall not be wholly abandoned without proper scientific evidence; because the evolution of an environmentally safe and risk-free GM product has the potential to become the panacea for global food shortage and inequity. Conclusion/Recommendations: The study will first examine the apparent conflict and tension between the Cartagena Protocol and the WTO regime. Secondly, the language of the savings clause in the Cartagena Protocol would be analyzed, to emphasize that the Protocol was envisaged to be in force with equal primacy to the WTO regime and that WTO rules can be harmoniously interpreted with the Protocol, in a manner that is beneficial to both. Next, it would be elaborated on how the Cartagena Protocol in effect supports and strengthens the existing WTO regime by better defining the precautionary principle. Therefore, through this study, we seek to suggest a possible way forward to sustainable development-by arguing that the Cartagena Protocol and WTO regime are capable of a mutually beneficial existence. In the years to come, such a harmonious interpretation would definitely become crucial for stabilizing and strengthening the international regime governing trade in GMOs.

Guised in Green: Uncloaking the Myth of World Trade Organization�s Trade-Environment Harmony

Problem statement: Over the past decade the World Trade Organization (WTO) has devoted considerable attention to the implementation of policies that work on the interplay of trade and environment by identifying several Multilateral Environment Agreements (MEAs) that have provisions for trade so that trade liberalization and environmental protection interact positively. However, the strategy of the WTO to bring trade and environment into harmony is only a mirage. Approach: This study delved into the conflicts between trade measures in MEAs and WTO rules and how WTO�s strategy to control trade in order to protect and preserve the environment is just a myth. Results: Through this study, we uncloaked the myths about sustainable development that WTO and MEAs together claim to bring about and delineate how the WTO is primarily a trading organization and has no specific agreement on environment. The study, therefore, shows how the �greening of the WTO� has only just been a fallacy and how a difference can be made by introducing clarity in the provisions of the MEAs. Conclusion: The findings suggested that both trade and environment are extremely imperative to the concept of development and it is a verity that one cannot be sacrificed for the other since both are equally important for the common cause of social welfare.

Trade Related Environmental Measures in Multilateral Environmental Agreements and the WTO: Irreconcilable Differences?

Problem statement: WTO adopted a multilateral trading system without ignoring the importance of protecting environment. Exceptions in Article XX, Clause (b) and (g) checks trade at the cost of environment. It is difficult to establish a relationship between Trade Related Environmental Measures (TREMs) in Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and World Trade Organization (WTO) rules. For the past ten years there have been simultaneous efforts to reconcile the differences between the two. Approach: Therefore, the author was intrigued by this topic and followed an analytical method of study with the help of various WTO documents available online as well as in books. Against this background, this article pursues three main goals to achieve. Firstly, it examines whether Public International law can be used in the WTO. In answering this question the author analyses the relationship between Trade Measures in MEA and WTO and how a meaningful balance can be struck between the two. The author has tried to find a solution to such conflicts in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. The Public International Law by applying the principle of lex specialis settles the conflict in favor of environment. Results: But somehow for years, WTO and its Dispute Settlement Body have been settling disputes between trade and environment in favor of trade. The second goal of this study is to determine whether sustainable development and its principles are intending to achieve a normative status in International law. In examining this issue it is pertinent to note that the International Case laws like the Gabcikovo Nagymaros Dispute becomes of utmost importance. The treaty laws also add to the presence of Sustainable Development. The author has also discussed the response of the WTO to sustainable development in the light of leading case laws. Conclusion: Towards the end the author has offered humble suggestions to reconcile the differences between TREMs in MEAs and WTO norms using sustainable development as an effective tool. The application of only the WTO law is not sufficient; it should also apply International law to the disputes. Such an approach would help in handling climatic changes and trade in genetically modified organisms.

Development or the Environment

Problem statement: The relationship between trade and environment is very complex though development and environment are invariably related to each other. There is a close relationship between development and conservation of the environment. The relationship between the WTO and MEAs is reducing and eliminating barriers to trade in environmental goods and services. This relation was acknowledged in 1972 Stockholm Conference on Human Environment. Over the past 20 years, an extraordinary number of international environmental agreements have been concluded. Very few MEAs actually regulate trade or contain trade-related provisions. Theoretically, MEA trade measures and WTO rules can and should interact in a positive and synergistic way. Approach: The main aim of this paper/research is to find out whether the international law has any method of dispute resolution or a systematic approach towards the ongoing debate between the environment and trade which is interlinked in a very complex manner. The resolution of these complex inter-linkages has become a challenge which we have to face. Results: The author had tried to highlight the complex relationship of WTO-MEA where both the environment and trade policy makers prefer unilateral solution for the environmental problem. Resorting to such unilateralism can pose a risk of arbitrary discrimination. The source of the conflict between the WTO and MEAs lies within the measures contained in MEA�s and WTO rules. For example, the violation of WTOs non-discrimination principle by MEAs. The two vital questions that occurred were whether trade measures under multilateral environmental agreements are compatible with WTO rules and If MEA-related disputes are brought to the WTO system, should the WTO discourse on the relationship between the WTO and MEAs? Conclusion: Both trade and environment are crucial for the well being of human society. What is most important is to strike a proper balance between free trade and environmental protection. There are a large number of multilateral environmental agreements. Although Special Trade Obligations (STOs) can be found in only a minority, these MEAs usually incorporate environmental norms that may result in clashes with trade norms of the WTO. One of the major steps is to control trade, as it is contributing to environmental damage. The other is by providing additional incentives to join MEAs and restricting non-parties to trade with parties in restricted goods. e.g., Montreal Protocol bans trade with non-parties in ozone-depleting substances. If a conflict arise in the future between the WTO Agreements and other rules of international law, WTO dispute settlement bodies will have to consider recognized rules under public international law to settle the conflict. In the context of a dispute between two WTO members, any WTO member that considers that any of its WTO benefits have been nullified or impaired it has an absolute right to trigger the WTO dispute settlement mechanism and request consultations and the establishment of a panel.

An Attempt to Hit Two Birds with a Stone-How Smart a Choice?

Problem statement: This study critically analyses the choice of using the concept of �sustainable development' for achieving both International trade promotion and environmental protection at the same time. It is my submission that the hypothesis that led to synthesis of international trade�s promotion and environmental protection viz., �economic growth leads to environmental protection� has not proved correct to which time stands as a testimony resulting in an ambiguity at the time of the conflict of two leading to the concept being used as a means of deception by the developed countries. Approach: In Part I of the study, I explain as to why was a need for such synthesis felt in the first place and how was it incorporated by calling it �sustainable development� which has all remained mere hollow talk especially in the wake of failure of CTE and mere humble achievements of Basel, CITES, Montreal Protocol and all those eight agreements which use trade regulation as a means to achieve its objective. In Part II, I answer the question as to is there a need for an alternative due to the ambiguity prevailing in the present law, in the affirmative by resorting to Environmental Kuznets Curve and highlighting that the problem of �Pollution Havens� can be checked even by taking an alternative route. Part III deals with this �alternative� which is to settle the debate of priority between international trade promotion and protecting Global Commons along with addressing other environmental concerns in the favor of the latter. Part IV deals with the likely arguments against the above proposition and the solution in its wake. Results: It also suggests measures to ensure that there is no �external free riding� in this goal of restoring our environment. Part V is the conclusion which summarizes the proposition with the observation that if trade regulations are to play an even more positive role for sustainable development, a settlement of priorities is the need of the hour. Conclusion: Thus this study advocates that the debate regarding the conflict of GATT and ETMs should be settled by clearly defining it in favor of the latter rather than leaving it for WTO panel to interpret Art. XX of GATT on a case to case basis, adopt a clear policy on international use of environmental taxes and international recognition and enforcement of polluter pays principle.

The Legal Inter-Linkages: Trade: Environment: Development

Problem statement: Multilateral trade agreements or the world trade organization rules-can trade and environmental laws be in harmony? Approach: The main aim of the research is to find out whether there is any pathway or solution to the disputes that arises when a country trades certain specific goods which poses a threat to the world at large. Our main focus lies in the fact that does the dispute resolution mechanism serves its duty well. Results: Trade in everything implies an environmental impact of some sort or the other. One of the central issues of the debate is the difficult relationship between Trade Related Environmental Measures (hereinafter �TREMs�) in Multilateral Environmental Agreements (hereinafter �MEAs�) and World Trade Organization (WTO) norms. Conclusion: The international community must find a way to balance environmental and trade interests. Development and the environment are invariably related to each other. Hence an essential and grave problem is to maintain harmony between development and the environment. Hence the central aim of this paper is to find out whether international law has any answers regarding the overlapping boundaries of trade and environment. In future �Best efforts� can be taken to equate to the diplomatic negotiation of a settlement by the parties to the dispute.

Service Quality Perceptions between Cooperative and Islamic Banks of Britain

Problem statement: The objectives of this study were to determine mean comparison all 6 dimensions between Cooperative Bank (CB) and Islamic Bank of Britain (IBB) in Leicestershire, United Kingdom, to compare the ranking for CB and IBB based on the customers preference and lastly to identify the similarities between CB and IBB based on customer preference. Approach: A sample of retail banking customers from CB and IBB was surveyed through a set of questionnaires. The proposed scale is called SERVQUAL and comprises 33 items named �CARTER� with six dimensions (Compliance, Assurance, Reliability, Tangible, Empathy and Responsiveness), which customized for suitability of CB and IBB. The data was analyzed based on SPSS. Results: The study indicated that the mean comparison for all 6 dimensions were compared and shown that the Compliance issues were very important for IBB customers, while the same cannot be mentioned for the CB customers, who gave more importance to Empathy and Responsiveness. On the other hand, the highest ranked between IBB and CB were found, where the customers of IBB chose No interest paid nor taken on saving and loan as a preferred items and CB customers more preferred to chose Run on ethical value as the highest rank. The results also demonstrated that the similarities were found where almost of the items in Assurance have a similar ranking in both of banks. Conclusion/Recommendations: Future research should be conducted with a big number of respondents to ensure the representative and conclusive finding. Next, the new research needs to increase a number of banks to obtain the good result.

The Malaysian Public Procurement�s Prevalent System and its Weaknesses

Problem statement: This study examined the public procurement system as prevalent in the Malaysian government system of administration. Various aspects of public procurement are outlined including types and the processes that entail public procurement. This study also highlighted the weaknesses in the manual public procurement processes that are opened to potential abuse and mismanagement resulting in corruption. This study places the Malaysian Government public procurement system under the spotlight zeroing on allegations of abuse, tampering and corrupt practices. The study concluded that the large amount of funds allocated to public procurement coupled with excessive human intervention opportunities opened avenues that increase the risk of system abuse, profiteering and corruption. Case studies on the abuse and corruption of the public procurement system highlight the need for the Malaysian Government to eliminate the loopholes in the system, arrest the rot and implement a transparent, efficient and accountable public procurement system. Approach: Documents from the Ministry of Finance on public procurement including, among others, the Procurement Guideline Book, The Financial Procedures Act 1957, the Treasury Instructions (TI) and the Treasury Circular Letter (TCL) were scrutinized in studying the Malaysian Government public procurement system, its various attributes, types and processes that reflect a diversified approach to public procurement. Three case studies were cited to illustrate the susceptibility of the system to abuse and corruption. Results: Despite claims of openness and transparency of the public procurement system, it was found the current system is replete with the risk of abuse, unethical manipulations and corrupt practices. This research is limited to the analysis of data and processes related to the Malaysian Government public procurement system. The sensitivity of the subject may inhibit the collection of empirical data via surveys or interviews. Records of court cases involving corruption offered clues to areas in the system prone to human intervention. Conclusion: This research helps identify areas of improvement in the Malaysian Government public procurement system and thus raises the possibility of enormous cost savings and the eradication of rampant corruption and abuse. This study shows that, while the public procurement system may be available in the Malaysian Government system of administration, weaknesses in the public procurement processes may open avenues for corruption to take place. Corruption stemming from a procurement system weak on aspects of �check and balance� will cause a major drain on the national budget and can result in a huge loss of public funds. Eventually, the nations credibility in the eyes of the international business community will be severely tainted thus reducing the overall competitiveness of the country.

The Economics of Autism in Egypt

Problem statement: This was the first study ever done on the cost consequences of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Egypt or any developing/industrializing country. The following questions were empirically investigated: What are the economic costs of ASD in Egypt and how do they compare with developed/industrialized countries? Why are cost consequences important in formulating ASD policy in Egypt and comparable countries? Approach: A statistical sample of 185 households, with at least 1 autistic family member, in the Greater Cairo Region was surveyed. Households were drawn from 3 distinct geographic clusters (urban, suburban and rural). Cluster sampling results were Chi-square (χ²) tested. In addition, relevant ASD policies were content-analyzed. Results: We discovered that care and support for autistic Egyptian children and adults are typically based on a household-provider model, in contrast to western, institution-based models. ASD costs in Egypt require higher investments in time and effort on the part of family caregivers. Hence, autism cost consequences in Egypt significantly differ from many developed countries. Conclusion: Opportunity and transaction costs, feedback effects and spillover consequences of the household-provider model should be carefully considered in health policy formulation. Making autism care and support available, affordable and reliable should be a major health concern of the state.

A Quantitative Study on Japanese Workers� Awareness to Information Security Using the Data Collected by Web-Based Survey

Problem statement: The researches in the field of social sciences such as economics and business management were not conducted until around 2000. Particularly, there are few empirical studies on information security. Primary reasons among various ones are that there is no data on information security countermeasures and we cannot easily use the data even if the data exist. Though it is in such a research environment, it is necessary to accumulate the research from not only promotion of academic research but also the social role. In this study, the author quantitatively analyzed Japanese workers� awareness to information security. Approach: The author examined whether or not there are differences of the workers� awareness to information security based on various attributes by using Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) based on non-parametric method. Results: It is found that Japanese workers� awareness to information security is different in attributes such as organizational attributes and the education about information security countermeasures. Conclusion: The author suggested the necessity of enhancing information security education and introducing firm system such as authority handover system and/or stock option system in order to motivate to take the efficient information security countermeasures.

Multilareral Environment Agreements Versus the World Trade Organization System

Problem statement: Since the inception of WTO in 1994, the protection of environment has evolved as a key issue due to recurrent trade transaction occurring among the states. WTO constituted a committee on Trade and Environment in 1995 to evaluate the scope of complementarities between trade liberalization and environmental protection. However Doha Development Agenda of 2001 and Article XX of GATT have proven to be a beacon light in such an evaluation but still it is observed that various states have resorted to varied margin of appreciation in applying restrictions. Thus this article bewrays the varied practices adopted by the states in this regards. Approach: Determining the approach of the states in striking a balance between the transnational trade practices and protecting environment from depletion caused by such practices. Also to determine an efficacious method for dealing the existing menace. The research methodology resorted to in the completion of this article is doctrinal in nature. The sources escorted belong to the genre of both external and internal. Omnibus of articles, books and electronic resources have been referred to for completing the article. The method of writing is primarily descriptive. The official website of WTO has proven to be of tremendous help. A uniform mode of citation has been followed throughout the article. Result: There are myriad of multilateral environmental agreements which usually incorporate environmental norms that may result in clashes with trade norms of the WTO. Reconciliation can only be possible with good faith negotiations under the Doha Development Agenda with renewed vigour and full commitments from both trade and environment advocates. Conclusion: In the event of any future conflict between the WTO rules and MEAs, trade advocates cannot simply argue that the WTO Agreements take priority and thus prevail over any other conflicting international treaties because the environmental side has the ability to argue the same. Thus the best way to avoid such a situation is to include a �conflict clause� or at least to contain cross references in both types of Agreements.

The Legal Inter-Linkages: Trade: Environment: Development
Problem statement: Multilateral trade agreements or the world trade organization rules-can trade and environmental laws be in harmony? Approach: The main aim of the research is to find out whether there is any pathway or solution to the disputes that arises when a country trades certain specific goods which poses a threat to the world at large. Our main focus lies in the fact that does the dispute resolution mechanism serves its duty well. Results: Trade in everything implies an environmental impact of some sort or the other. One of the central issues of the debate is the difficult relationship between Trade Related Environmental Measures (hereinafter �TREMs�) in Multilateral Environmental Agreements (hereinafter �MEAs�) and World Trade Organization (WTO) norms. Conclusion: The international community must find a way to balance environmental and trade interests. Development and the environment are invariably related to each other. Hence an essential and grave problem is to maintain harmony between development and the environment. Hence the central aim of this paper is to find out whether international law has any answers regarding the overlapping boundaries of trade and environment. In future �Best efforts� can be taken to equate to the diplomatic negotiation of a settlement by the parties to the dispute.

Neuro-Based Artificial Intelligence Model for Loan Decisions
Problem statement: Despite the increase in consumer loans defaults and competition in the banking market, most of the Jordanian commercial banks are reluctant to use artificial intelligence software systems for supporting loan decisions. Approach: This study developed a proposed model that identifies artificial neural network as an enabling tool for evaluating credit applications to support loan decisions in the Jordanian Commercial banks. A multi-layer feed-forward neural network with backpropagation learning algorithm was used to build up the proposed model. Results: Different representative cases of loan applications were considered based on the guidelines of different banks in Jordan, to validate the neural network model. Conclusion: The results indicated that artificial neural networks are a successful technology that can be used in loan application evaluation in the Jordanian commercial banks.

Quality of Health Services Provided to Iraqis at Jordan Red Crescent Health Centers
Problem statement: Quality of services measurement has been the concern of many scholars who have tried to develop scales for it. The most popular scale used was SERVQUAL. Hence the aim of this study is to discover the quality of health services provided to Iraqis at Jordan Red Crescent Health Centers in Amman. Approach: A sample study was derived from (1652) male and female patients from five health centers: Ashrafieh Health Center; Al-Hashemi Health Center; Marka Health Center; Al-Taj Health Center and AL-Hussein Health Center. Means, Standard Deviation, Independent Sample T-Test, simple regression and the Scheffe Test were used to answer the study�s main questions. Results: It was found that the quality of health services provided to the Iraqis at Jordan Red Crescent health centers was high in all dimensions, the highest quality dimensions displayed among the health service available at Jordan Red Crescent health centers were tangibles and assurance, whereas the lowest quality dimensions were empathy and responsiveness, there was a significant difference in the quality of health services provided to Iraqis at Jordan Red Crescent Health Centers (Ashrafieh Health Center, Al-Hashemi Health Center, Marka Health Center, Al-Taj Health Center and AL-Hussein Health Center) from one center to another and there was a significant difference in the quality of health services provided to Iraqis at Jordan Red Crescent health centers based on the number of visits the Iraqis made to the center. Conclusion: The main recommendation presented in this study is that there is a need to expand the health services in cooperation with international humanitarian organizations in order to accommodate the rising number of Iraqis frequenting the centers.

Impact of University Budget Cuts on the Local Economy: Case for a Regional University
Considering the economic downturn and state-wide revenue shortfall almost all of the states have reduced their spending on higher education. The problem addressed in this study was to assess the economic impact of university budget reductions on the local and state economy of Kansas. Approach: The study used regional multipliers from an input-output model developed by Bureau of Economic Analysis, RIMS-II and applied to the budget reduction dataset supplied by the Office of Budget, Emporia State University, Kansas. Due to a statewide revenue shortfall of $200 million for the fiscal year 2009-10, Kansas state legislators have drastically cut back their support for higher education. Emporia State University reduced its spending by $4.203 million which includes elimination of 79 full and part-time employees. Results: Using economic impact multipliers this study found that for every dollar decrease in spending by ESU, output and income will be reduced by $1.04 and $0.65, respectively in the Emporia Area and by $1.56 and $0.85, respectively for Kansas. The study also found that for every job loss at ESU an additional 0.61 jobs are lost in the Emporia Area and 0.89 jobs in Kansas economy. Conclusion: The implications of this study found that cutting funding for Emporia State University will eventually diminish its positive regional effect in terms of output, earnings and employment potential both in the short-run and in the long-run.

Unequally Error Protected Wireless Data Transmission Using Channel State Information and Adaptive Encoders
Problem statement: Higher data transmission rate with Quality of Services (QoS) guarantee is an important objective for wireless broadband communication systems. Unlike other communication system, real-time transmission requires high data rate and good error performance to ensure good quality of service. This study describes the design problem of real-time wireless data transmission which provides higher achievable data rate with Unequal Error Protection (UEP). Approach: Real-time data stream was divided equally into two streams, High Priority (HP) and Low Priority (LP) streams depending on their requirements. We considered these two bit streams as being encoded separately by two adaptive encoders. Feedback of Channel State Information (CSI) was used in adaptive physical layer channel for efficient use of the current available bandwidth by controlling the encoders. High code rate were used in both encoders when the channel is good while low code rate is otherwise. The two coded data streams were superimposed together with two different adjustable levels of power to achieve the UEP at the receiver end. Results: In this proposed scheme, same design metrics, namely, time, bandwidth and power were used to increase the transmission efficiency. Conclusion/Recommendations: Results showed that our scheme provided higher error performance for HP stream compared with other schemes that transmit using one power level data stream. The finding can be modified for studying the effects of fading on this system in future research.

A Theory of the Risks of Venture Capital Financing
Problem statement: There is no general theory analyzing how the time-varying cash flows of venture capitalist financing affect the likelihood of success of a new venture. This research addressed that lacuna in the literature. Approach: Research in the area of venture capital financing was needed because of the importance of new ventures as germinators of technological innovation. The research in this study developed a general economic theory quantifying the risk of venture failure associated with time-varying cash flows of financing. Each occasion when an entrepreneur made an overture to a venture capitalist to elicit a financing commitment was defined to be a distinct �solicitation event�. The series of financial commitments elicited from venture capitalists were assumed to have the characteristics of independently distributed random variables. It was assumed that the entrepreneur must secure a minimal aggregate commitment in order to ensure development of the project; failure to secure that amount caused the venture to be aborted. The theory of stochastic processes was applied to derive the practical implications as regards the risk of abortion. Results: It was shown that the aggregate financing commitment secured by an entrepreneur in a finite time had stochastic properties corresponding to those of a statistical renewal process. The research derived limiting conditions on the probability that entrepreneur�s venture will be aborted because of his failure to secure the minimal aggregate commitment. The main result was that if the number of solicitations by the entrepreneur is large and the financial commitments were independently distributed random variables with finite means and variances, the probability distribution governing venture survival is the Normal distribution. Conclusion: The study derived four analytical propositions quantifying the trade-offs between the risk and the expected return associated with venture capital financing. The policy implications of the results imply the benefits of mitigating information asymmetry. Some of the risk faced by the entrepreneurs could be attenuated if information about the risk/return preferences of venture capitalists were known to the entrepreneurs prior to solicitation. Some of the risks faced by the venture capitalists could be attenuated if information about the risk/return characteristics of the proposed investment project could be accurately and transparently communicated to the venture capitalist during the solicitation event. If either or both of these information deficits were palliated, the market for venture capital would operate more efficiently.

An Exploration of the Organizational Culture in the International Business Relationships and Conflicts Era
Problem statement: The purpose is to analyze the organizational culture notion in relationships of co-operation in international business and management era. Approach: Public policies of government can strengthen or weaken the fiduciary culture. A political institution may be a good predictor of a quality constitution that prevents wasteful conflict among elites. Results: Also conflict between a firm, the community, new social movements and the role of government where the external political and social networks of the firm, mainly governmental agents and political actors, who play an important role will be discussed. Conclusion: Also facilitators to understand the repercussions of the inter-relationships between corporate cultural norms and practices and the community cultural norms and practices will be studied.