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Physiological Response of Soybean (Glycine max) to Foliar Application of Methanol Under Different Soil Moistures

Problem statement: Many cultivated area are situated in arid zone, where crop photosynthesis and productivity has limited by drought. Thus any treatment, such as methanol, that improve plant water relation and reduce stress impacts, could be benefit. Approach: In order to investigate effects of methanol application on some physiological properties of soybean under low water stress, a factorial experiment was done at Research Field of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Islamic Azad University-Karaj Branch, Karaj, Iran, during 2008, based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor was different levels of methanol equal to 0 (control), 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 volumetric percentage (v/v), which were used as foliar applications at three times during growth season of soybean, with 15 days intervals. The second factor was water stress conditions in two levels, based on depletion of 40 and 70% of available soil moisture. Some traits such as Grain Yield, Relative Water Content (RWC), chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and chlorophyll content were measured, one day before and after the third methanol application. Results: Chlorophyll content (Chl), GY, Electrolytes Leakage at second sampling, photochemical capacity of PSII (F_v/F_m), maximum and variable fluorescence (F_m and F_v, respectively) were affected by water stress significantly (p<0.05). As drought severity was increased, mean values of photochemical capacity of PSII, Chl and RWC tend to decline, whereas minimum fluorescence (F₀) and Electrolytes Leakage were increased. Methanol foliar application influenced significantly (p<0.05) Chl, RWC, Grain Yield, and all fluorescence parameters. There was a positive, high correlation between GY with maximum fluorescence, photochemical capacity and also Chl and RWC in both samplings. Conclusion: It seems applying methanol on water stressed soybean plants can reduce harmful effects of drought and improve plant potential to cope with stress.

The Determination of Optimal Crop Pattern with Aim of Reduction in Hazards of Environmental

Problem statement: The purpose of the study was to find the optimal cropping pattern, in Taybad, which maximizes the net return per water cubic meter and per fertilizer kilogram. Approach: A linear programming model and a fuzzy multi-objective fractional programming model were applied and then these models were compared. Results: Result of study showed ratio of net return into consumption of inputs and Ratio of consumption of inputs into area under cultivation are improved with applying of FMOLFP. Conclusion: FMOLFP models can be used as an effective tool for optimal cropping pattern when in addition to economical goals, environmental goals are noticed. Managers and decision makers can apply these models for optimization of ratio of objectives.

Analysis of Sarawak Bario Rice Diversity Using Microsatellite Markers

Problem statement: There are numerous claims on varieties of Bario rice cultivars in Sarawak. Many of them might be synonyms or homonyms. This preliminary study was to differentiate Bario Rice cultivars using microsatellite molecular markers. Approach: Microsatellite marker panels distributed on all 12 chromosomes on rice genome were employed to study 8 Bario rice cultivars in Sarawak. Results: Current study indicated that the microsatellite panel were able to differentiate the 8 Bario rice cultivars. A total of 31 alleles were generated at 12 polymorphic microsatellite loci among the cultivars using the selected polymorphic SSR primer pairs with an average of 2.6 alleles per locus. Average PIC value obtained was 0.5204. An UPGMA dendrogram based on SSR polymorphism indicated high variation among the rice varieties with the coefficient ranging from 0.16 and 0.92. Genetic diversity determination using cluster analysis showed differentiation of rice cultivars into 2 major groups and several sub-groups. Conclusion: The SSR markers were useful for differentiating the genotypes and assessment of genetic relationships due to its reproducibility and to multiallelic, codominant and informative properties.

Evaluation of Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hyphomycete) Isolates and their Effects on Subterranean Termite Coptotermes curvignathus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

Problem statement: Coptotermes curvignathus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) is a common termite pest found in oil palm plantation planted on peat. Currently, the control methods focus on using insecticides that lead to high cost and adverse effect to the environment. Approach: Biological control like the use of entomopathogens provides an alternative control method for termite infestation problem. However, several factors need to be investigated in order to obtain a virulent strain with potential to be developed into a biopesticide. Results: Three local isolates (MG, LR2 and TA) of Metarhizium anisopliae were obtained and identified as M. anisopliae var. anisopliae using molecular techniques. Growth performance of isolates on four basal media namely, Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA), Potato Dextrose Agar with 1% yeast extract (PDAY), Sabaroud Dextrose Agar (SDA) and Sabaroud Dextrose Agar with 1% yeast extract (SDAY) was assessed. The pathogenicity of each isolate was tested against subterranean termite Coptotermes curvignathus at three concentrations of 1�10⁶, 1�10⁷ and 1�10⁸ conidia mL^-1. Infections of the isolates were examined using electron microscopy technique. The growth performance of each isolate differed significantly. Among all basal media, only SDAY was able to produce high growth performance and thick conidia mats with all isolates. The most pathogenic isolate was LR2, which caused 100% mortality at 1�10⁷ conidia mL^-1 within 3 days post-inoculation. Conclusion/Recommendations: All three isolates were pathogenic against C. curvignathus as they were able to germinate and penetrate into the termite cuticle within 15 hours post-inoculation. The three local isolates of M. anisopliae var. anisopliae have potential to be developed as biopesticides to control termites, C. curvignathus in oil palm plantations.

Assessment on the Effect of Formulative Materials on the Viability and Efficacy of Serratia marcescens-a Biocontrol Agent Against Fusarium oxysporum F. sp. cubense race 4

Problem statement: Application of biocontrol agents to the field in pre-existing free-cell forms often results in poor cell viability which subsequently affects their efficacy in suppressing pathogen development. There is therefore a need to bioformulate these biocontrol agents not just to enhance their field potential, but for easy storage, delivery and application as well. Approach: In this study, the bioformulations for a biocontrol bacterium Serratia marcescens, was developed using bentonite clay as carrier material with various combinations of enrichment and additive materials. The most suitable bioformulation was determined by assessing the compatibility of the formulative materials in preserving cell viability during storage, the resulting appearance of the bioformulation, the protection confered to cells upon sunlight exposure and the efficacy of the formulated cells (with and without sunlight exposure) in inhibiting the growth of the pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum F. sp. cubense race 4 (FocR4). Results: Bioformulation benefited the cells when exposed to sunlight (UV rays). The benefits of bioformulation were attributed to the carrier material (bentonite clay) and the enhancement materials (NFSM and sucrose). They confer UV-protectant effects as well as providing nutrient source for the formulated cells. The additive material PABA was observed to have antimicrobial effect on the formulated cells. Formulative materials however has no impact on the efficacy of the cells in inhibiting FocR4 as no significant differences in percentages of FocR4 inhibition were observed between bioformulations with and without exposure to sunlight. Conclusion: Present study observed that incorporation of sucrose into Bentonite (BS) has the most potential for large-scale testing as it showed good viability and efficacy results.

Evaluation of Leaf Total Nitrogen Content for Nitrogen Management in a Malaysian Paddy Field by Using Soil Plant Analysis Development Chlorophyll Meter

Problem statement: Laboratory plant testing is usually time-consuming and high-costing. Hence, plant nutrient variability must be measured rapidly and the information made known to the farmers before the new season starts. Site-specific crop management, well-established in some developed countries, is now being considered in other places such as Malaysia. Approach: The application of site-specific management principles and techniques to diverse crops and small-scale farming systems in Malaysia will present new challenges. Describing within-field variability in typical Malaysian production settings is a fundamental first step toward determining the size of management zones and the inter-relationships between limiting factors, for establishment of site-specific management strategies. Results: Measurements of rice SPAD readings and nitrogen content were obtained in a Malaysian rice paddy field. SPAD reading data was manually collected on 80DAT and measured using a Minolta SPAD 502. Leaf samples were collected at 60 points at the same time to compare results from sampling with SPAD reading values. Samples nitrogen content was analyzed in a laboratory. Analysis of variance, variogram and kriging were conducted to determine the variability of the measured parameters and also their relationship. SPAD reading and nitrogen content maps were created on the interpretation of the data was investigated. Conclusion/Recommendations: Finally the research indicated that SPAD readings are closely related to leaf N content which means the potential for technology of precision farming to understand and control variation in Malaysian production fields and also SPAD chlorophyll meter ability to monitor the N status of rice and recommend the amount of N fertilization. Additional research is needed to confirm the results with data from other fields and crops.

Evaluation of Leaf Total Nitrogen Content for Nitrogen Management in a Malaysian Paddy Field by Using Soil Plant Analysis Development Chlorophyll Meter

Response of Root Properties to Tripartite Symbiosis between Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), Rhizobia and Mycorrhiza Under Dry Organic Farming Conditions

Problem statement: It is generally considered that root turnover is a major contributor to organic matter and mineral nutrient cycles in organic managed agroecosystems. Approach: This study designed to investigate whether microbial activity could affect on root properties of Lucerne in an organically managed field under dry weather conditions. The trial was laid out as a factorial experiment in the fields of the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna- Austria at Raasdorf in 2007. The experimental factors of Rhizobium (Sinorhizobium meliloti) and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM) including Glomus etunicatum, G. intraradices and G. claroideum and irrigation levels were tested. Results: Results showed that increasing water deficit affected root dry weigh, specific root mass and root length significantly at 1% level and co-inoculation of rhizobium and mycorrhiza with irrigation increased all root parameters. Data�s of variance analysis for mycorrhizal colonization showed that main effect of using mycorrhiza had significant effects on root parameters at 5 and 1% probability level at first and second harvest, respectively. Results of mean comparisons by Duncan�s Multiple Range Test showed that mycorrhizal colonization was higher in the inoculated treatments by rhizobium, mycorrhiza and irrigated plots in both harvests. Double interaction of mycorrhiza and irrigation was higher in both harvests (37.05 and 65.73%, respectively). Conclusion: It can be suggested that the tripartite symbiosis of Rhizobium, AM and Lucerne can improve the performance of Lucerne in organic farming and under dry conditions. Such traits could be incorporated into breeding programs to improve drought tolerance especially in organic fields.

Effect of Delaying Sporulation by Addition of Ammonium Sulphate on the Fermentation of Palm Kernal Cake Based Substrate by Aspergillus niger

Problem statement: Asexual sporulation is a common reproductive mode for a diverse group of fungi and the ultimate limiting factor in fungal biomass production. Approach: Delaying sporulation may increase the biomass in terms of mycelial production and the same time increase production of enzymes. Results: In order to delay the sporulation different levels of ammonium sulphate (10, 12 and 14%) were added in culture media as nitrogen source for fungus. It was observed that addition of 14% ammonium sulphate was the best concentration to add in culture during Solid State Fermentation (SSF) of substrate (Palm Kernel Cake (PKC) + Rice Bran) by Aspergillus niger to delay sporulation. Adding ammonium sulphate also increased the digestibility of fiber in the Fermented Substrate (FS). In addition very low sporulation was observed even after 72 h of fermentation. The development of spore forming was inhibited or delayed when ammonium sulphate was added compared to the control. Similarly, both NDF and ADF content of FS were decreased in the treatment groups. The higher the ammonium sulphate added to the medium, the lower the NDF and ADF contents of FS although the differences of NDF content were not significant after 3 days or 4 days fermentation. . Conclusion/Recommendations: It was concluded that adding 14% ammonium sulphate significantly delayed sporulation and increased fungal biomass production in a solid state fermentation system.

Response of Spring Safflower to Co-Inoculation with Azotobacter chroococum and Glomus intraradices Under Different Levels of Nitrogen and Phosphorus

Problem statement: In order to evaluate the effects of co-inoculation of Azotobacter and Mycorrhiza with nitrogen and phosphorus levels on yield and yield components of spring safflower, this study was carried out in the experimental field of Farahan University in Markazi province- Iran in 2006. Approach: A factorial experiment in the form of complete randomized block design with three replications has been used. Inoculation of Azotobacter (without and with inoculation by Azotobacter chroococum) and Mycorrhiza (without and with inoculation by Glomus intraradices) under different levels of nitrogen and phosphorus levels [F₀ = N₀+P₀(kg ha^-1), F₁ = N₅₀+P₂₅(kg ha^-1), F₂ = N₁₀₀+P₅₀(kg ha^-1) and F₃ = N₁₅₀+P₇₅(kg ha^-1)] on spring safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.-cv. IL-111) have been studied. Results: In this study some characteristics such as: Harvest index, hectolitre weight, root dry weight, seed yield, mycorrhizal root colonization, number of days to maturity were assessed. Results indicated that treatment (A₁M₁F₂) with average grain yield 1239 (kg ha^-1) and treatment (A₀M₁F₀) with average grain yield 723.7 (kg ha^-1) were significantly higher than other treatments. Seed inoculation at the planting date with Azotobacter and Mycorrhiza caused increasing grain yield about 6.13% in compare with control treatment. Conclusion: Seed yield and yield components of safflower have been affected significantly by the inoculation with Azotobacter and Mycorrhiza, because these biofertilizers can fix atmospheric nitrogen and increase phosphorus availability in soil and enhanced absorb elements by safflower.

A Simulation Model Estimates of the Intercropping Advantage of an Immature-Rubber, Banana and Pineapple System

Problem statement: Intercropping has been shown to have many advantages but it is fallacious to conclude it is always a better cropping system. Little is known about a new double-hedgerow intercropping of rubber, banana and pineapple in relation to its effects on growth and yield of the component crops when compared to their monocrops. Simulation modeling offers a cheaper and faster alternative to explore cropping scenarios and estimate their productivity under a wide range of management and environmental conditions. This simulation study was therefore undertaken to evaluate the growth and yield of immature rubber, banana and pineapple intercrop and monocrop scenarios with the aid of an intercrop simulation model named SURHIS, as well as estimating the intercropping advantage. Approach: A FORTRAN computer model (SURHIS) that simulated the daily light interception and utilization by immature-rubber, banana and pineapple intercropping system was used to simulate intercrop and monocrop scenarios to estimate potential Dry Matter Yield (DMY) for all crops as well as fruit yields for banana and pineapple. The results of the model were tested for accuracy by comparing actual field experimental results with the aid of Mean Deviation (MD) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) statistical analyses. Intercropping advantage was assessed using the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) analysis. Results: The model was representative or predicted DMY of the crops with sufficient accuracy. The LER analysis showed that the intercropping system had a dry matter yield productivity advantage of 81% more than monocrops of the component crops. The results also showed that the higher the Plant Population Density (PPD), the greater is the dry matter yield. It was also shown that banana and pineapple had no deleterious effect on the growth of rubber. Fruit weight per plant of banana and pineapple was reduced with increase in PPD for the monocrops. Measured average fresh fruit bunch weight for banana was 18 kg plant^-1 and the average fresh fruit weight per plant for pineapple was 2.1 kg for the intercropping system. Conclusion: Intercropping of banana and pineapple with immature-rubber is more productive than the component crops grown as monocrops in their respective optimum plant population densities per hectare. The model can be useful for predicting potential productivity, with sufficient accuracy, of the afore-mentioned intercropping system under varying plant density and environment scenarios as well as acting as a guide for plant density experimentation.

Response of Maize to Nutrients Foliar Application Under Water Deficit Stress Conditions

Problem statement: To investigate the effect of nutrient application on agronomical characteristic and water use efficiency under water deficit stress of hybrid maize 704, an experiment was arranged in a split plot factorial based on a complete randomized block design with four replicates in the research station of Islamic Azad University-Arak Branch, Iran in 2007. Approach: Main factors studied were four irrigation levels including irrigation equal to crop water requirement, water deficit stress at eight-leaf stage (V₈), stage of blister (R₂) and stage of filling grain in the main plot. Combined levels of selenium treatment (without and with application 20 g ha^-1) were applied 2 weeks before execution of water stress treatment and micronutrients (without and with application) that was provided by specific fertilizer for maize called "Biomin", which contained Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Mo and Mg in the form of foliar application at six-leaf stage and 1 week before tasseling stage at the rate of 2 L ha^-1 were situated in sub plots. Results: Results indicated that effect of water deficit stress on 1000 grain weight, grain yield, harvest index and water use efficiency at different growth stages was significant at 1% level. Water deficit stress decreased grain yield 33% in grain filling stage as compared with control. Using selenium increased mentioned traits but the increase was non significant. Effects of twofold interactions of water deficit stress and selenium showed that using selenium in water deficit stress condition increased measured traits as compared with treatment without selenium. A negative antagonistic interaction was found between selenium and micronutrients on some measured traits. In between treatments of water deficit stress, highest grain yield (8159.33 kg ha^-1) was obtained from combined treatment of water deficit stress at eight-leaf stage with selenium application and without micronutrients which compared with treatment of irrigation equal to crop water requirement, without selenium and microelements did not differ significant. Conclusion: According to the results of experiment, using microelements in optimum water availability and using selenium in water deficit stress condition increased mentioned traits as compared to treatments control.

Interpretive Perspective of Knowledge Management Stance in Agricultural Knowledge Information System to Fostering Research/Extension Linkage

Problem statement: Knowledge Management (KM) as a �starter� and Agricultural Knowledge Information System (AKIS) act as an �engine� to sustainable development. Approach: This article explored the role of KM as Agricultural Knowledge Initiative (AKI) to link up agricultural research and extension to foster agricultural development. A dominant-less dominant design was applied to describe the KM and AKIS integration frameworks as an interpretive process. Clarification of KM stance in AKIS was made through hermeneutic approach in the qualitative part of the study. In quantitative part of the study, 'Expedite Finding Transmission of Agricultural Research (EFTAR) Project was explained as the empirical evidence. Results: Although KM and AKIS were not new concepts in agricultural science, but AKI and the New Agriculture (NA), in the way that we intermingled them in this article to encourage the end-users� partnership and agricultural development, are quite new issues. Conclusion: To provide the domain of any use of proposed models elsewhere and facilitate the international application of KM in AKIS and AKI, practical suggestions were presented. Applying this state of art in agricultural development in over 1000 production units, caused obtaining 57% increase in rain fed wheat production in probationary areas in Iran.

Salicylic Acid Protects Nitrate Reductase Activity, Growth and Proline in Amaranth and Tomato Plants during Water Deficit

Problem statement: Seedlings of Amaranthus hybridus cv. NHAC-3 (large green, amaranth) and Lycopersicum esculentum cv. Roma (tomato) were subjected to 7 days water stress at Early Vegetative (EV), Late Vegetative (LV), Early Flowering (EF) and Late Flowering (LF) stages of growth to study the impact on leaf water potential (ψ_w), Nitrate Reductase Activity (NRA), growth (plant height, shoot and root biomass) and proline content of both plants. Approach: Two concentrations of salicylic acid (1 and 3 mM SA) were applied to stressed plants to study the level of protection given by SA to the plants. Leaf ψ_w was significantly reduced (p = 0.05) during stress treatment at nearly all stages of growth in both plants. Leaf ψw was in the range -0.25 to -1.42 (unstressed) and -1.45 to -2.02 (stressed) in tomato plants while in amaranth it was -0.7 to -1.62 (unstressed) and -1.62 to -2.68 (stressed). As 3 mM SA increased leaf ψ_w to values close to the control (unstressed plants). NRA was significantly (p = 0.05) reduced by stress treatment at the LV stage of amaranth, EF stage of tomato and LF stage of both plants. Results: Thus, the reduction of NRA was more pronounced at the reproductive stage of both plants. As 3 mM SA was effective in maintaining NRA at levels similar to the control in both plants. Stress treatment reduced plant height significantly (p = 0.05) at the vegetative stages of both plants and 3 mM was also effective in keeping plant height similar to the control. Though shoot biomass was affected by water stress, SA treatment was not very effective in preserving the biomass during stress. Root biomass of plants was reduced by stress treatment at the reproductive stage and only tomato plants responded positively to 3 mM SA. Proline content was only slightly increased at all stages of growth in stressed plants but 3 mM SA induced a two-fold increase in proline content at the vegetative stage of tomato (EV and LV) and significant increases (p = 0.05) at almost all stages of growth of amaranth. Conclusion/Recommendations: The build up of proline, an osmolyte, by SA in stressed plants increased the capacity of plants to absorb water from the soil as shown by the increase in leaf ψ_w of both plants from -1.45 to -0.25 . SA was more effective in protecting the plants against the adverse effects of water stress when the stress was given at the vegetative stages (EV and LV) than at the flowering stages (EF and LF).

Biological Control of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Causal Agent of Sunflower Head and Stem Rot Disease, by Use of Soil borne Actinomycetes Isolates

Chilling Injury in Mamey Sapote Fruit (Pouteria sapota): Biochemical and Physiological Responses

Effects of Tillage Methods on Soil Fragmentation in Loamy-Clay Soils

Effects of Converting Secondary Forest on Peat to Oil Palm Plantation on Carbon Sequestration

Membrane Binding Activity with Virus in White Spot Syndrome Virus-Infected Fenneropenaeus chinensis

Investigation of the Agricultural Water Management Mechanisms in Zarindasht County, Fars Province, Iran

Reorganization of Agricultural Extension toward Green Agriculture

Soil Erosion Prediction Based on Land Use Changes (A Case in Neka Watershed)

Study of Performance Parameters of Threshing Unit in a Single Plant Thresher

Anti-Phytopthora capsici Activities and Potential Use as Antifungal in Agriculture of Alpinia galanga Swartz, Curcuma longa Linn, Boesenbergia pandurata Schut and Chromolaena odorata: Bioactivities Guided Isolation of Ac

Development of Microbial Inoculants and the Impact of Soil Application on Rice Seedlings Growth

Biocontrol of Botrytis allii Munn the Causal Agent of Neck Rot, the Post Harvest Disease in Onion, by use of a New Iranian Isolate of Streptomyces

Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Cocopeat-Based Media Mixtures and Their Effects on the Growth and Development of Celosia cristata

Toward Clean Green Sustainable Development to Prevent the First Food World War, Changing Authoritative-Public Extension to Literalized-Partnership Extension System

The Land Uses� Consequences in Coastal Area of Faliraki and Delta Penaeus River in Greece

Differential Reaction of Citrus Species in Malaysia to Huanglongbing (HLB) Disease using Grafting Method

Effects of Novel Disk-type Furrow Opener Used in No-Tillage System on Micro Environment of Seed

Problem statement: Offset Double-Disk Opener (DDO) is a popular furrow opener in conservation tillage. It has some limitations such as negative suction to penetrate in the soil, hair pinning and mixing seed and fertilizer in the slot. Because of importance of separation of seed and fertilizer in the slot, by adding two horizontal mini disks to DDO a modified opener was made (MDO) which placed the fertilizer between and under two rows of seed. Approach: To consider performance of novel opener an indoor comparison test between DDO and MDO was performed at soil bin. The experiment was conducted with three working speeds (3, 6 and 8 km h^-1), two bulk densities of soil (1.1 and 1.4 Mg m^-3) and two levels of residues (1 and 2 ton ha^-1). The experimental design consisted in a (3�2�2) complete randomized factorial with three replicates for each test. Moisture of seed furrow, separation of seed and fertilizer, hair pinning and resultant forces acting on the openers were used as assessing indexes. Results: There was no significant difference between soil moisture content in slots created by DDO and MDO at 0-4 cm depth, but at 4-8 cm the in the slot created by MDO moisture content was higher about 9%. Horizontal force for both openers increased with increasing speed and soil bulk density. Vertical force for DDO was negative so it needed additional weight for penetrating in the soil, but vertical force for MDO was positive and, which can solve the challenge of penetration in the soil in DDO. In soft soil with heavy residues some trash was pushed by DDO into seed furrow (hair pinning) but at MDO seed were placed at clean groove. Lateral and vertical separation of seed and fertilizer was performed effectively by MDO (4.5 and 5 cm, respectively) while DDO put seed and fertilizer close to each other. Conclusion: Overall, the Modified Offset Double-disks (MDO) had better performance. So by adapting this opener with no-tillage drillers it would possible to have higher yield in conservation tillage where the most appropriate opener is disk type.

Lisrel Analysis of Factors for Empowering Producers to Abolish Livelihood Poverty through Optimizing Agricultural Water Resources Management

Problem statement: Most of the projected increase in global population will take place in third world countries that already suffer from water, food, and health problems. Irrigation in developing countries tends to be stereotyped as equity reducing, in competition with other uses for scarce water resources. Agricultural intensification through the practice of irrigation as a strategy for poverty reduction is examined. Water users were surveyed in order to explore their perception about the factors influencing the optimizing water consumption in agricultural sectors in Iran. This study looks into water-poverty interfaces as well as into approaches to and tools of, managing water in such a manner that water sector activities can contribute to alleviation of poverty. In addition, this study aims to empower water users with information on agricultural wastewater. Approach: The methodology used in this study involved a combination of descriptive and quantitative research. The total population was 350 producers in six provinces in Iran. Results: Based on the perception of the respondents and ordinal factor analysis, the factors were categorized into four group�s namely technical and practical, recognition and managing water equipment and constructive ordered by the magnitude of their impact. The total variance explained by these 4 factors is 54.27% as effective mechanisms in optimizing agricultural water resources management. Structural equation model is expected to be useful for designing targeted optimizing agricultural water resources management and poverty alleviation strategies that also enhance agricultural-productivity growth. Conclusion/Recommendations: Where there is equity in resource distribution, the impact of improved water management on agricultural productivity growth has been more poverty reducing. Using water better means improving the productivity of agricultural water in both irrigated and rainfed systems, through multiple-use water system, integrated water resources planning, and targeted research.

Soil Compaction and Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis) Yield in a Clay Textured Soil

Problem statement: The impacts of soil compaction on crop yields have been studied extensively by soil scientists due to declining soil productivity associated with mechanisation. However, a relationship between machine-induced soil compaction and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) yield is unclear. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the effects of mechanization on soil physical properties and the influence on oil palm yield. Approach: The palms were planted in Bernam series soil which is clay textured. Compaction treatments were imposed for 6 consecutive years. Comparisons were made between the effects of soil compaction caused by different trailer weights and monthly transportation frequency. Results: The results showed a beneficial effect of soil compaction on the oil palm yield. It significantly increased the yield with increased mean soil bulk density. The transportation frequency played a greater role than the trailer weight. After six years of soil compaction, there was a positive relationship between mean soil bulk density, porosity and oil palm yield. Conclusion: Thus compaction may not often be a problem.

Valuation of Water and its Sensitive Analysis in Agricultural Sector A Hedonic Pricing Approach

Problem statement: In the recent decades water scarcity and its impacts on agricultural sectors and food security are growing concerns worldwide. Water scarcity is one the major problem facing agricultural production in Iran. In this context valuation of irrigation water can be suggest as an appropriate solution. Approach: This research based on utilizing hedonic pricing method for estimating effective variables on the value of agricultural lands and used a way, for obtaining the value of irrigation water in Mashhad. Sensitive analysis is also used for observation of varieties in the value of water. Results: Results showed that, irrigation water is the most effective and significant variable in the controversial area. Results of the sensitive analysis indicated that, by increasing discount rate, the value of water increased. Whereas by decreasing period of investment and annual consumption of water, the value of it, decreased. Conclusion: In the case of agricultural lands are allocated to cultivation of valuable crops, discount rate of investment would increase; and also if agricultural lands invested in quick return activities, period of investment decrease. And therefore, the value of irrigation water in m^-3 increases. Results indicated that by decrease of aridity and so increase in water consumption, in a long run period of investment, value of irrigation water decreases.

Lead and Cadmium Availability and Uptake by Rice Plant in Response to Different Biosolids and Inorganic Fertilizers

Problem statement: Contents of heavy metals in soil are very important because soil is the first link in the food chain. Approach: But, pay attention to importance the subject, we performed this project to investigate the lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) availability and uptake by rice plant in response to different biosolids Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), Vermicompost (VC) and inorganic Fertilizers (CF) using split plot arrangement based on randomized complete block design with three replications in 2008. Results: The results showed that fertilizer and application periods treatments influenced Pb and Cd accumulation. The highest available Pb (4.89 ppm) and Cd (0.173 ppm) belong to 3 years application of 40 ton.ha^-1 MSW +1/2 CF treatment. During 3 years application of 20 ton.ha^-1 MSW+1/2 CF the most Pb accumulated in root. Conclusion: The maximum Pb uptake by shoot and grain happened in 40 ton.ha^-1 MSW treatment. With application 40 ton.ha^-1 VC +1/2 CF, the maximum Cd accumulated in root. During 3 years application of 40 ton.ha^-1 MSW and 20 ton.ha^-1 VC the highest Cd uptaked by shoot. While, the maximum Cd concentration in grain belong to 20 ton.ha^-1 MSW +1/2CF and CF treatments when added to soil for 3 continuous years.

Characterization of Substrate-Borne Vibrational Signals of Euschistus servus (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

Problem statement: Stink bugs were not major pests of cotton in the southeastern United States until cotton varieties containing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenes came into common use, enabling reductions in insecticide applications against highly destructive lepidopteran pests. To maintain the benefits of reduced insecticide applications, it would be advantageous to detect and target isolated populations of stink bugs before they rise to economically important levels. However, detection methods for these pests are less than optimal, and alternative methods are being investigated. One novel method of detection would be to exploit substrate-borne vibrational signals of these bugs. Approach: To develop an effective vibration detection method, substrate-borne vibrational signals produced by different species commonly occurring in the region must be characterized sufficiently to enable detection of these species in the absence of visual observation. In this research, substrate-borne vibrational signals were recorded from the brown stink bug Euschistus servus. These signals were categorized by dominant frequency, duration, and repetition time using a Gaussian mixture model, revealing an assortment of �songs� in an acoustic repertoire. Results: Females of E. servus emitted two distinct songs while males of E. servus emitted four distinct songs. Results indicated that the repertoire of this species differs from that of other species in the same geographical location (southeastern United States) reported in previous literature. Conclusion/Recommendations: In conclusion, detection of pentatomid pests by their substrate-borne vibrational signals must include the parameters of each unique song of each species of stink bug to be detected, including those of the two female and four male songs of E. servus. The characterization of these songs will allow for the development of a monitoring system in the field using strategically placed accelerometers to detect stink bug vibrational communication and thus provide a density map of the location of these pests.

Viability of Lactobacillus delbrueckii Under Human Gastrointestinal Conditions Simulated In Vitro

Problem statement: Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is a lactic bacteria mostly used in the production of yoghurt and it has an important probiotic activity that brings benefits to the human body. However, the gastrointestinal tract has aggressive conditions, such as the acid pH in the stomach and the bile in the duodenum, that reduce the viability of this bacteria. Approach: In order to evaluate the effect of the human gastrointestinal conditions on Lactobacillus delbrueckii�s viability, a simulated in vitro gastrointestinal system was designed, which consisted of two reactors where stomach and human small intestine conditions were simulated. Results: Lactobacillus delbrueckii cells were treated in human gastric conditions simulated in vitro (gastric juice adjusted to pH 2, 37�C, 90 min and 50 rpm) and in intestinal conditions simulated in vitro (pancreatic juice adjusted to pH 6.8, 37�C, 150 min and 50 rpm) and in presence of a sample of food or beverages. A sample of typical Mexican food was added and at the end of the treatment 73% of the cells remained viable. This means 36.5 times more viability with respect to the cells treated under the same conditions in presence of a sample of milk with 8% starch. At the end of the treatment, the viability of cells treated in simulated in vitro gastrointestinal juices without sample of food or beverage (blank) was 1%. Conclusion: The results indicated that the in vitro simulated human gastrointestinal conditions were aggressive to the Lactobacillus delbrueckii�s viability. To minimize this negative effect it is suggested that probiotics be consumed with some food because this could increase the probability that the bacteria reach the human colon in a large number and carry out their probiotic effect.

Morphological Characteristics of P. xylostella Granulovirus and Effects on Its Larval Host Diamondback Moth Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera, Plutellidae)

Problem statement: Diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. (Lepidoptera, Plutellidae) is the most destructive insect pest of cruciferous plants throughout the world which become resistant to wide range of chemical pesticides. PxGV is known as an effective factor on diamondback moth larval mortality. Approach: Some morphological characteristics, viral DNA isolation and Restriction Endonuclease (REN) analysis of P. xylostella granulovirus and its effects of different concentrations on its larval host Diamondback Moth P. xylostella, were studied. Results: Taiwanian isolate confirmed due to restriction pattern and genome size of PxGV Taiwanian isolate which was compared with PxGV isolates reported earlier. PxGV originally isolated in Taiwan has capsules that are ovocylindrical with a mean size of 272.84�12 by 148.27�19 nm. The virions are 168.44�16�29.57�12 nm. Results from pathogenicity test of the granulovirus to DBM using the leaf disc method shows that first, second and third instars of P. xylostella were significantly susceptible to infection by PxGV. Older larvae were less susceptible to PxGV than younger larvae with the same virus concentration. The LC₅₀ for second instar larvae was 1.39�10⁶ granules mL^-1. The LT₅₀ values ranged between 3.813-6.946, 4.965-9.743 and 5145-9.407 days for first to third instars in three different concentrations, respectively. Conclusion: Its high specificity and pathogenicity to its larval host indicate that PxGV is a good candidate as an alternative biopesticide to chemical insecticides in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) of P. xylostella.

A Review: The Role of Remote Sensing in Precision Agriculture

Problem statement: Precision agriculture is an emerging farm management strategy that is changing the way people farm. Approach: At present, there is an increasing commitment to reduce reliance on excessive chemical inputs in agriculture. Numerous technologies have been applied to make agricultural products safer and to lower their adverse impacts on the environment, a goal that is consistent with sustainable agriculture. Results: Precision agriculture has emerged as a valuable component of the framework to achieve this goal. Conclusion: This review highlighted on remote sensing technology and describes how it can be used as an effective tool in precision agriculture.

Effect of Potassium Levels on Antioxidant Enzymes and Malodialdialdehyde Content under Drought Stress in Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.)

Problem statement: Drought stress as a major adverse factor can lower leaf water potential, leading to reduced turgor and some other responses and ultimately lower crop productivity in arid and semi arid zones. Sunflower is one of the main oil seed crops in Iran, where drought stress is the most limiting factor. Drought stress tolerance requires the activation of complex metabolic activities including ant oxidative pathways, especially Activated Oxygen Species (AOS) and scavenging systems within the cells which can contribute to continued growth under drought stress. Approach: To evaluate the effect of limited irrigation systems and potassium fertilizer on seed yield, some antioxidant enzymes and lipid per oxidation biomarker (MDA), the crop was sown in the Research Farm of College of Agriculture, Islamic Azad University, Karaj Branch in 2009. The experimental treatments were arranged as split plots based on a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The main plots were allocated to three different irrigation regimes. The irrigation regimes comprised of: Full Irrigation (IR₁), Moderate drought stress (IR₅) and Severe drought stress (IR₂). The subplots were allocated to four potassium chemical fertilizer (potassium nitrate) consisting of K₁ = 25, K₂ = 50, K₃ = 75 and K₄ = 100% recommended. Results: Plants under drought stress and potassium levels showed a significant increase and decrease, respectively, in SOD, CAT and GPX activity and MDA in compared to control plants. In this context, plants with higher levels of potassium showed higher resistance to drought stress conditions and higher yield and dry matter allocation to grain filling process i.e. harvest index. Results of this study suggested that drought stress leads to production of oxygen radicals, which results in increased lipid per oxidation (MDA biomarker) and oxidative stress in the plant. Conclusion: The scavenging of AOS by the scavenging system especially by SOD, CAT and GPX was done well and damage to membranes or MDA was controlled at higher levels of potassium.

Quantitative Trait Loci Analysis of Novel Fusarium Head Blight Resistance in Tokai 66

Problem statement: Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci (QTLs) in durable resistant genotype is important for marker-assisted breeding. The study was conducted to identify QTLs linked to FHB resistance in �Tokai 66�, a Japanese genotype. Approach: A cross was made between Tokai 66 and Jagalene and the single seed descend was used to advance the population. The F_2:4 and F_2:5 populations were evaluated by artificially inoculating disease in a mist-irrigated nursery in 2006 and 2007. Disease incidence, severity, FDK and DON content were evaluated in the 128 RILs. Map Manager QTX was used to prepare the linkage map and QTL Cartographer 2.0 was used to identify QTLs for FHB responses from the field data respectively. Results: Four QTLs for FHB responses were detected, of which one QTL each for severity and FDK were stable across two years and were located at the 5B and 3BSc, respectively. Both QTLs conferred resistance to FHB. Two unstable QTLs were detected at the 5B and 3D for FDK and DON content, respectively using the field environment. The 5B QTL for FDK contributed to susceptibility, whereas the 3D QTL for DON content contributed to resistance. Conclusion: The 5B QTL associated with resistance to severity and 3B QTL associated with resistance to FDK could be utilized by winter wheat breeding programs selection to enhance FHB resistance.

Growth Dynamics of Celosia cristata Grown in Cocopeat, Burnt Rice Hull and Kenaf Core Fiber Mixtures

Problem statement: Understanding the growth dynamics of short-lived plant could be critical as it would complete its life cycle in a short time period. It does not normally has much time to adjust to hostile environmental condition. This study provides a detail account on growth dynamics of Celosia cristata grown in five growing media for the production of high quality flowers. Approach: Celosia cristata plants were grown on five growing media (v/v): 100% Cocopeat (CP); 70% CP: 30% Burnt Rice Hull (BRH); 70% CP: 30% perlite; 70% CP: 30% Kenaf Core Fiber (KCF) and 40% CP: 60% KCF. To explore the dynamics of plant growth and development, data on plant height and canopy diameter were regressed against Days After Transplanting (DAT) by using the equation y = A/(1+be^-cx) while its derivative [dy/dx = (Abce^-cx))/(1+be^-cx)²] was used to estimate the growth rate of the parameter. The variation in leaf number, flower length and flower diameter were modeled using an exponential function of y = Ae^bx and their rate of change was derived using dx/dy = Abebx. Results: The growth rates of plant height, canopy diameter and leaf number of plants grown in media containing 100% CP, 70% CP: 30% BRH, 70% CP: 30% perlite, 70% CP: 30% KCF were higher than those grown on media containing 40% CP: 60% KCF. The growth rates of stem and canopy of the plants grown in the later media tended to be higher at the end of the growth cycle. This, however would not be sufficient to compensate their early losses, since the rate of growth in leaf number did not increase concurrently. Negative effects of media containing KCF were also detected in flower size. Conclusion: Overall results showed that CP is an excellent growing media for the production of Celosia cristata. Replacing 30% of CP with BRH, perlite and KCF did not affect the growth and flowering of the plants.

Factors Influencing the Development of Entrepreneurial Education in Iran�s Applied-Scientific Educational Centers for Agriculture

Problem statement: An understanding of factors influencing entrepreneurial education in Iran�s applied-scientific educational centers for agriculture is crucial for creating the new opportunities for students and encouraging them to involve in entrepreneurial activity. The purpose of this study was twofold. First, it determined the key factors that influence entrepreneurial education in Iran�s applied-scientific educational centers for agriculture. Second, the study examined relationship of these factors with developing entrepreneurial education. Approach: The research in terms of nature is a kind of quantitative research and in terms of goal is applied research, in terms of controlling the variables is descriptive and correlation kind, which has been carried out in a survey way. Statistical population of the study consisted of 19255 students for applied-scientific education in agriculture in Iran. Based on the classification of the Ministry of Agriculture which has divided these centers into five regions, sample taking has been conducted using stratified proportionate random sampling technique. Sample size for the students is 355 people using Cochran formula. Considering the entire size of the sample, some 291 questionnaires have been returned. Results: The results of the ordinal factor analysis showed the classification of the factors into five latent variables. The variables were classified into managerial, economical, social, technical and regulatory. The basic idea of factor analysis was to found a set of latent variables that contain the same information. The classic factor analysis assumed that, both observed and the latent variables were continuous variables. But, in practice, the observed variables were often ordinal. Spearman coefficient showed that there was relationship between economical, social, technical, regulatory and managerial factors and perception of students about entrepreneurial education. Conclusion: Entrepreneurial education had a tremendous potential to help in the employment status of students in Iran�s applied-scientific educational centers for agriculture. These centers had the opportunity to play a major role in the development of entrepreneurial education. The development of entrepreneurial education results in creating more jobs and employment sustainability could be achieved over time. Therefore, certain special factors in developing entrepreneurial education among students in these centers should be identified and need to be carefully examined. Innovative strategies need to be developed that cater specifically the entrepreneurship educational needs of students. Applied-scientific educational centers for agriculture in Iran need to provide practical training in entrepreneurship to their students, to make them more aware of the benefits of entrepreneurship and to address the factors that impact on developing entrepreneurial education in the centers.

The Pattern of Local Community-Based Management for Sustainable Rural Development in West Azarbaijan Province

Problem statement: Community-based management as incorporates both a top-down and bottom-up approach that involvement beneficiary sections such as local community, government states and non governmental organizations. It has also been applied to designate approaches where local communities play a central but not exclusive role in rural sustainable development process management. Approach: This study was survey method and is descriptive-correlation research, which was carried out to designee the pattern of community-based management and its application for sustainable rural development process in west Azarbaijan province. Study population were consisted 270 of, local community (rural councilors), offices experts in rural related office activities and agricultural and natural resources engineering organization NGO�s members. Results: Results of structural equation modeling of the accepted characteristics indicated that latent variable such as �Stakeholder�s Role� and �Affecting Factors� have positive effect and �Obstacles� latent variable has a negative role to design CBM. A structural equation indicated these variables altogether account 93% of variance (R² = 0.93) in designing community-based management. Conclusion/Recommendations: On the basis of structural model, we can conclude that factors, stakholers and obstacles have important affect on community-based management. Overall community based management will have more impotent role in rural developments process planning, organizing, staffing, controlling and directing.

Development of a Comprehensive Computer Program for Predicting Farm Energy

Problem statement: The agricultural industry is a major user of energy. Energy is used directly for operating agricultural machinery and equipment on the farm and indirectly in the manufacturing of fertilizers and pesticides and processing of agricultural products off the farm. In order to reduce the cost of agricultural production, energy uses on the farm must be identified and optimized using modern tools. Approach: A comprehensive and easy to use computer program was developed for the purpose of determining the farm energy requirements with the aim of reducing costs and maximizing profit. The program includes a main database composed of nine sub-databases: Tractors sub-database, agricultural machinery sub-database, pumps sub-database, stationary engines sub-database, planting dates sub-database, soil sub-database, operating variables of farm operations sub-database, draft and power equations sub-database and water requirement sub-database. The program was designed with visual C++ language. Results: The program was tested by comparing its results with the manually calculated results. The results showed that the program worked properly. The developed program was also illustrated using an example farm to show the different stages of determining the required farm energy. Conclusion: The program can be used: To determine the farm energy requirements, to assess the current status of farms in terms of energy use efficiency, for future planning of modern farms and as an educational tool. It has many advantages including: Ease of use when dealing with input through interactive windows, ease of addition or deletion or updating of sub-databases, ease of exploring the program windows and the potential for further future development of any part of the program. The program is unique as it includes all the information in a database and has a multi dimensional uses including: Evaluation of an existing system, selecting new machinery based on an optimum energy use and future planning of farm operations.

Species Composition, Ecological Parameters and Seasonal Changes of Planktonic Ciliates Population in Bukan Dam Reservoir

Problem statement: Since there is no evidence to identify present species in the Bukan dam reservoir, therefore, this study was conducted to provide background for fisheries purposes. Approach: The abundance and species composition of ciliates were analyzed in the Bukan Dam reservoir (west Azerbaijan, Iran) from January to December 2007. Surface water samples were collected at monthly intervals at two different points, open water (Station 1, 3) and in the shallowest area of the reservoir (Station 2, 4) and examined for planktonic protozoa composition and density. Chlorophyll a was analyzed and a few ecological parameters such as dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and temperature were measured. Results: Totally 50 ciliates species were found in Bukan dam reservoir. Concerning the protozoa density, a high-density period was detected from January to April with a mean number of 2.86�103 cells.L^-1 protozoa at Stations 1, 3 and 4.16�103 cells.L^-1 protozoa at shallowest areas at stations 2, 4 thanks to disappear of phytoplankton in the winter. The summer development of protozoa was possible thanks to the development of bacteria and moderate metazooplankton densities due to the appearance of non-edible algae. The density of ciliates was low during the rest of the year. The mean number of organisms at the high-density period was approximately 4-fold more than that obtained during the low-density one. The ciliates occurring at the highest densities were Coleps tessellates, Paradileptus elephantinus, Zosterograptus labiatus, Cyclidium citrullus. Conclusion/Recommendations: It was concluded that ciliates density have important role for saprobic condition of Bukan reservoir. Therefore, it can be recommended to determine more effective parameters for density of ciliates and management policies must be programmed in order to improve ecological condition for this reservoir.

Multienvironment Analysis of Traits Relation and Hybrids Comparison of Maize Based on the Genotype by Trait Biplot

Problem statement: The Genotype by Trait (GT) biplot can be used to compare cultivars on the basis of multiple traits and to identify cultivars that are particularly good in certain traits and therefore can be candidates for parents in plant breeding program. Approach: The objective of this study was to evaluate the maize hybrids based on Genotype by Traits (GT) biplot to examine its usefulness in visualizing maize trait relationship and its application in hybrids comparison. Results: Correlation coefficient between phenological-agronomic traits showed that there is a strong positive relationship between all of the measured traits, except Anthesis-Silking Interval (ASI). This pattern approximately repeated during three years. Also, correlation coefficient between grain yield components reveals a positive or negative relation between measured traits. These results reflect the complexity of the correlation among the grain yield components. The genotype by trait comparison indicated that KSC 700 had greater value for rows number per ear and kernel depth whereas OSSK 602 and ZP 684 had greater value for thousand kernel weight and grain number per row. Conclusion: Results indicate that the pattern of the polygon view traits varied across three years. Consequently, GT biplot describes the interrelationships among traits and it was used to identifying hybrids that are good for some particular traits.

The Yellow Mealworm as a Novel Source of Protein

Problem statement: Yellow mealworms of different sizes (4.8-182.7 mg) were grown in a medium of wheat flour and brewer�s yeast (95:5 by weight) to evaluate their potential as a protein source. Approach: There was an initial adjustment period (3-9 days) observed during which the younger larvae (4.8-61.1 mg) grew slowly while the older ones (80.3-182.7 mg) lost weight. After this initial period, the younger larvae (4.8-122.1 mg) increased in weight while the older ones (139.6-182.7 mg) continued to lose weight as they entered the pupal stage. For efficient production of larvae, they should be harvested at a weight of 100-110 mg. The moisture issue in the medium presents an important management problem for commercial production. Results: A system in which eggs are separate from adults and hatched in separate chambers would alleviate the danger of losing the larval population due to microbial infection. The moisture, ash, protein and fat contents were 58.1-61.5, 1.8-2.2, 24.3-27.6 and 12.0-12.5%, respectively. Yellow mealworms seem to be a promising source of protein for human consumption with the required fat and essential amino acids. Further research into raising them on a variety of low quality substances/wastes such as saw dust, waste paper, corn starch and potato flour is recommended. Conclusion/Recommendations: The future research should also investigate the nutrition content of the medium (minerals, protein, fat, carbohydrates and vitamins) and the effect of environmental parameters (temperature, humidity, production of CO₂ and heat) on protein yield and quality. This information will aid in the design of an economically viable large scale production system.

Farmers� Perception about the Extension Services and Extension Workers: The Case of Organic Agriculture Extension Program by PROSHIKA

Problem statement: Need of agricultural information is the basic necessity for the farmers as it plays a pivotal role in enlightening them, raising their level of knowledge and eventually help in their decision making process regarding farming activities. Extension workers with their extension services are doing this noble work. PROSHIKA a renowned NGO in Bangladesh is promoting organic agriculture among the smallholders since 1978. However, its expansion in Bangladesh has remained far behind the expected level that raised the issue about the effectiveness of the organic agriculture extension (from hereafter, OAE) program of PROSHIKA. Thus, the study was undertaken to identify the determinants influencing the effectiveness of PROSHIKA�s OAE program in improving the livelihood of the smallholder organic farmers in Bangladesh. Additionally the study was attempted to learn the farmers� perception about this OAE program as well as the Extension Workers (EW). Approach: Data for the analysis were sourced from 90 small holder organic farmers of Madhupur sub-district those are group members of PROSHIKA. Results: The results of the study showed that the majority (62%) of the respondent farmers had a good perception about the effectiveness of PROSHIKA�s OAE services in their livelihood improvement. While, 50% of respondent farmers felt that the extension workers of PROSHIKA are credible and about 52% of the respondent farmers had a better perception about the quality of the extension workers. The result of the logit regression identified that credibility of the extension workers, frequency of contact with extension workers, varieties of extension services received by the farmers and farmers� education had significant relationship with effectiveness of the extension services. Conclusion/Recommendations: Thus it can be concluded that if PROSHIKA give emphasis on credibility improvement of their extension workers and ensure more frequent visits of the extension workers with farmers then the effectiveness of their extension services will be improved and eventually help in rapid expansion of organic farming in Bangladesh.